Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War (1946-1949) was a significant conflict that emerged in the aftermath of World War II, rooted in the power struggles among various factions vying for control in Greece. The war followed a period of resistance against Axis occupation, primarily led by the Communist-affiliated National Liberation Front-National Popular Liberation Army (EAM-ELAS) and other groups, including monarchists and pro-Western democrats. As the war drew to a close, tensions escalated between these factions, particularly after the return of King George II and subsequent elections that the Communists rejected.
The conflict attracted international attention, particularly from the United States, which intervened in 1947 through the Truman Doctrine to combat the spread of communism. The Greek government accused neighboring Communist countries of interference, further complicating the situation. The war saw fierce battles, notably around Konitsa, and ultimately shifted in favor of the monarchist forces by 1948 due to multiple factors, including U.S. aid and internal divisions among the Communists.
The war officially ended on September 6, 1949, with the Greek National Army declaring victory. In the aftermath, many Communist leaders went into exile, leading to the establishment of a conservative government under the monarchy in Greece. The Greek Civil War not only shaped the nation’s political landscape but also had lasting implications for its society and international relations in the post-war era.
Greek Civil War
At issue: Attempt to establish Communist control in Greece
Date: December 3, 1944-October 16, 1949
Location: Greece
Combatants: Greek Communist Party vs. Greek monarchy forces
Principal commanders: Communist, Aris Veloukhiotis (1905–1945), Markos Vaphiadis (1906–1992), Nikos Zachariades (1903–1973); Monarchist, Alexandros Papagos (1883–1955)
Principal battles: Athens, Konitsa
Result: Monarchist victory; Communist leaders went into exile; Greece became part of Western anticommunist alliance
Background
During World War II, Italy invaded Greece (October, 1940), and the country rallied around dictator Ion Metaxes, who was supported by Great Britain. After the Greeks defeated the Italian army, Germany quickly conquered and occupied the Balkan kingdom. In response, the Greeks organized a series of guerrilla movements. The most powerful of these was the National Liberation Front-National Popular Liberation Army (Ethniko Apelevtherotiko Metopo-Ethnikos Laikos Apelevtherotikos Stratos, or EAM-ELAS) led by the Communist Party. Other organizations formed, including monarchist groups and democratic organizations such as the pro-Western National Democratic Greek League (Ethnikos Demokratike Ellenikos Syndesmos, or EDES). Besides fighting the occupiers, the resistance groups vied for power in the postwar country and argued over whether the British-supported monarch King George II should return.
Action
As the EAM-ELAS increased in strength (1943), it carried out coordinated large-scale sabotage actions while capturing much German equipment. However, it began to cooperate less with other groups, and firefights erupted among the various guerrilla forces. The Communists benefited from widespread antimonarchist sentiment. When British troops reentered Greece (Autumn, 1944) and called for the guerrillas to lay down their arms, a massive uprising broke out chiefly in Athens (1944–1945). Communist forces controlled most of rural Greece. The British negotiated a truce between the ELAS and the monarchists, but the Communist leader Aris Veloukhiotis repudiated it and began renewed guerrilla warfare. However, he was killed in the summer of 1945. The remainder of the Communist leadership reluctantly maintained the truce until the elections of 1946.
The Communists rejected the results of the election and renewed the civil war, receiving help from Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria, which all had Communist-controlled governments. The Greek government appealed to the United Nations about this outside interference. At the same time, the inability of Britain to support Athens brought the United States, previously neutral, into the fight. President Harry S. Truman announced the Truman Doctrine (March 12, 1947), which advocated the use of U.S. aid to fight communism in Greece and Turkey. The United Nations Special Commission of the Balkans (UNSCOB) supported Greek complaints, but the Communist bloc in the United Nations prevented any direct action.
Much of the fighting centered on Konitsa (1947) on the Albanian border where the Communists hoped to establish a rival capital. Although they failed to take the city, Markos Vaphiadis, the Communist leader, declared an independent Greece to rival that of King Paul, who had succeeded his brother when the latter died. Vaphiadis was unable to gain recognition even from the Communist governments, but his forces still regrouped on the territory of his northern neighbors and, in a controversial move, removed thousands of Greek children, minus their parents, from the war zone to these northern lands. Then the tide turned in favor of the monarchy (1948). A number of factors played a role in the downfall of the Communist cause, including U.S. aid, a strengthening of the government and the monarchist forces with new leadership, and confusion in the Greek Communist leadership. In addition, a breach between the Soviet Union’s Joseph Stalin and Tito of Yugoslavia led to the closing of the Yugoslav-Greek frontier. Nikos Zachariades replaced Vaphiadis as commander of the Communist forces (January, 1949). The Greek National Army, led by Alexandros Papagos, reclaimed the land and announced victory on September 6, 1949. A month later, the Communists announced that they would cease fighting (October 16).
Aftermath
The Communist leaders went into exile, and a conservative government under the monarchy was established in Greece.
Resources
Close, David H. The Origins of the Greek Civil War. London: Longman, 1995.
Eleni. Fiction film. Embassy Home Entertainment, 1986.
Greek Civil War. Documentary. Highlights in World History Series, 1970.
Iatrides, John O., and Linda Wrigley, eds. Greece at the Crossroads: The Civil War and Its Legacy. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.
Koliopoulos, Giannes S. Plundered Loyalties: Axis Occupation and Civil Strife in Greek West Macedonia, 1941–1949. London: Hurst & Company, 1999.
O’Ballance, Edgar. The Greek Civil War, 1944–1949. New York: Praeger, 1966.
Vlavianos, Chares. Greece, 1941–1949: From Resistance to Civil War: The Strategy of the Greek Communist Party. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992.
Were My Dead Friends to Walk: A History of the Greek Civil War. Documentary. Pacifica, 1969.