Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment)

Haskalah was an intellectual and social movement in European Jewish communities that lasted from about the 1770s until the 1880s. It is often referred to as the Jewish Enlightenment because of its similarities to the Enlightenment movement in other European communities about a century earlier. Not all scholars agree with this connection. During Haskalah, its followers endorsed secularism among Jews, including an increased focus on studying nonreligious subjects and languages and a greater assimilation into the broader European culture. Haskalah adherents eventually played important roles in the Jewish Reform and Zionist movements.

Background

For many centuries, many people viewed Jews with suspicion and disdain and relegated them to the lower ranks of society. Jews were often required to live in specific areas of a town or city and were subjected to limitations on the population in those areas. These practices occurred for centuries. For instance, during the Middle Ages, Jews were often blamed for plagues or other problems that afflicted society. In addition, Jews were not able to become naturalized citizens in England until the nineteenth century. Although some Jewish people played prominent roles in society, they were subjected to discrimination and often did not have the same rights as other citizens.

This discrimination continued even though Europeans interacted with the Jews on a regular basis. Many Jews were businesspeople, and the non-Jewish population of Europe often relied on them for goods and services. As the influence of the European Enlightenment spread, some Jewish people were inspired to reform the restrictions placed on them by both Jewish and non-Jewish customs. This group began to study other subjects, visit new places, and seek equal rights for themselves. This became the movement known as Haskalah.

Overview

The word Haskalah comes from the Hebrew word sekhel, which means "reason," or "intellect." The name derived from the movement's increased focus on scientific and philosophical aspects of life over the more traditional religious approach. Followers of the movement were called maskilim.

In the mid-eighteenth century, Jews living in Germany, Poland, and Central Europe—an area known collectively as Galicia—developed an increased interest in secular topics such as science, the arts, agriculture, and languages. An attentiveness grew toward the interaction between science and religion. Whereas education previously focused on the Talmud, or Jewish sacred texts, the maskilim sought to emphasize subjects such as history, science, languages, and vocational skills. At the same time, they wanted an increased emphasis on Jewish history and the teaching of the ancient Hebrew language to maintain a sense of Jewish nationalism. The movement eventually spread throughout Europe and into Russia.

A key point for the maskilim was the idea that Jews should place less emphasis on waiting for a messiah, or savior. Instead, many followers of Haskalah preferred to pursue justice and peace for the Jewish people in the world in which they lived. Instead of waiting for a prophet to save them, maskilim believed that the Jews should save themselves by working toward a world that promotes peace, tolerance, and justice.

At the center of this movement was German philosopher and writer Moses Mendelssohn. Mendelssohn wrote extensively on philosophy, metaphysics, politics, and other secular topics. He encouraged the use of the language of the country where a Jew lived over the use of a Jewish language known as Yiddish, and he translated the Pentateuch, or Jewish scriptures, into German.

Although Mendelssohn was considered by many to be the father of Haskalah, others were also influential in the movement. These included David Friedländer, Lazarus Bendavid, and Saul Ascher. These men helped to spread and support the movement in many ways. For example, Friedländer was instrumental in the formation of the Berlin Free School, which provided an education to Jewish boys from lower economic classes.

The movement gained support from a few secular leaders, who mandated that Jewish children attend schools that taught nonreligious subjects and did not allow Jews to marry unless they had attended one of these schools. These leaders also required rabbis to be educated in the sciences and to preach and teach in the language of the country rather than in Hebrew. This led to an overall switch among Jewish communities from speaking Yiddish and Hebrew to speaking the language of the countries in which they lived.

Another change provided education for all Jewish girls; previously, only the daughters of wealthy Jews received an education from private tutors. Government schools were opened that allowed Jewish girls at all income levels to obtain an education. Requirements and provisions were implemented so Jewish children could continue their education.

Another change sought and secured by the maskilim was the types of jobs pursued by Jews. Many worked in banking and trading, but the maskilim emphasized the benefits of manual labor and work in farming and handicrafts. Organizations helped Jewish students learn crafts and secure apprenticeships.

Not everyone was in favor of the changes. Many Orthodox Jews saw it as a challenge to their traditional values and to the Talmud itself. However, the movement gained many followers, including Orthodox rabbis, because many people felt that education helped them have a deeper knowledge and understanding of the religious texts.

Haskalah led to the Jewish Reform movement, which modernized ancient texts and traditions and softened rules about men and women worshiping together. It also inspired Zionism, the movement to establish a Jewish homeland in Israel. Other important changes that resulted from the movement included an increase in published literature in both Hebrew and secular Yiddish. The movement ended as most of its adherents assimilated into the national cultures of the countries where they lived.

Bibliography

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Feiner, Shmuel. "Haskalah Attitudes toward Women." Jewish Women's Archive, 27 Feb. 2009, jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/haskalah-attitudes-toward-women. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.

Jacobs, Louis. "Haskalah, the Jewish Enlightenment." My Jewish Learning, www.myjewishlearning.com/article/haskalah. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.

Litvak, Olga. Haskalah: The Romantic Movement in Judaism. Rutgers University Press, 2012.

Melamed, Yitzhak. "The Haskalah: Jewish Modernity & Shame." Stroum Center for Jewish Studies, University of Washington, jewishstudies.washington.edu/jewish-history-and-thought/haskalah-jewish-modernity-shame. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.

Schoenberg, Shira. “Modern Jewish History: The Haskalah.” Jewish Virtual Library, www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-haskalah. Accessed 6 Dec. 2024.

Schumacher-Brunhes, Marie. "Enlightenment Jewish Style: The Haskalah Movement in Europe." European History Online, 19 Apr. 2012, ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-networks/jewish-networks/marie-schumacher-brunhes-enlightenment-jewish-style-the-haskalah-movement-in-europe. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.