Hellenistic and Roman Greece

Date: 323 b.c.e.-330 c.e.

Locale: Greek peninsula, Italy, Sicily, eastern Mediterranean

Hellenistic and Roman Greece

“Hellenistic,” derived from Hellenistes (the Greek word for “one who speaks Greek”), is more a temporal than a geographical term and refers to the period from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 b.c.e. until the beginning of the reign of the Roman emperor Augustus in 31 b.c.e. Hellenistic Greece included not only the Greek peninsula but also Greek communities in Italy and Sicily known as Magna Graecia, as well as vast areas of western Asia, North Africa, and Egypt. Roman Greece began with Augustus and ended with the founding of Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman empire in 330 c.e.

History

The traditional independent Greek city-state disintegrated in the Hellenistic period as Alexander’s Diadochi, or successors, struggled to create dynastic kingdoms and waged nearly continuous warfare with one another and with various leagues of Greek cities. It is impossible to consider the history of Greece in this period separately from the affairs of powerful ruling families such as the Seleucids in Syria, the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Antigonids in Macedonia, and, eventually, Rome.

At the time of Alexander the Great’s death, Greece was controlled by Antipater, a general who had served under Alexander’s father Philip II of Macedonia. Antipater’s death in 319 b.c.e. was followed by factional warfare among Antigonus I Monophthalmos, Ptolemy Soter of Egypt, and Antipater’s son Cassander. In 311 b.c.e., all three signed a treaty giving Macedonia and Greece to Cassander and acknowledging their separate spheres of influence as independent monarchs.

Greece in general and Athens in particular were mere pawns in this struggle. An aristocratic faction under the peripatetic philosopher Demetrius Phalereus ruled Athens for Cassander. In 307 b.c.e., Antigonus’ son Demetrius Poliorcetes seized Athens and restored the democracy. In 301 b.c.e., Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus defeated Antigonus and Demetrius Poliorcetes at Ipsus, and Athens returned to Cassander, who allowed the city self-rule until it was recaptured by Demetrius in 295 b.c.e.

Cassander died in 298 b.c.e. Rivalries among his sons enabled Demetrius Poliorcetes to control Macedonia from 294 b.c.e. until his death in 288 b.c.e. Lysimachus then ruled Macedonia and northern Greece until he fell in battle in 281 b.c.e. Two years later, Macedonia was invaded by the Galati, a Gallic tribe from the Danube. Greece proper avoided a similar fate only by the brave defense of the Aetolians. After thwarting Galatian conquest of Asia Minor, Antigonus II Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, returned in 276 b.c.e. to Macedonia, where he established himself as king. At first Antigonus’s control of Greece was limited to Corinth and Piraeus. A revolt by Athens, Sparta, and other cities, called the Chremonidean War (268/267-262/261 b.c.e.), led to Athens’ capture by Antigonus in 262 b.c.e.

The second half of the third century b.c.e. is marked by a futile struggle to attain Greek independence, first from Macedonia and then from Rome, complicated by inter-Greek conflicts among the Achaean League, the Aetolian League, and Sparta. An Aetolian alliance with Rome against Philip V of Macedonia in 212 b.c.e. led to a series of Macedonian wars between Rome and Macedonia. In 197 b.c.e., Macedonia was defeated by Titus Quinctius Flamininus at Cynoscephalae. In the following year, at the Isthmian Games, Flamininus declared free all Greeks formerly ruled by Philip. This brilliant stroke of propaganda led to widespread support for Rome throughout Greece, except in the cities of the Aetolian League, which encouraged the Seleucids to support an unsuccessful war of liberation against Roman rule of Greece. Following the defeat of the Macedonian king Perseus at Pydna in 168 b.c.e. by the Roman Quintus Marcius Philippus, the Aetolian League was dissolved and many Greeks, including the historian Polybius, were exiled to Rome. In 146 b.c.e., the Achaean League declared war on Rome. The consul Lucius Mummius, sent by Rome to deal with the uprising, defeated the league and destroyed Corinth as its political center. Greece became Roman territory.

In the first century b.c.e., Greece was caught in the middle of Roman conflicts, first with the ambitious Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontus and then in the series of Roman civil wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, between Caesar’s heir and his assassins, and finally between Octavian and Marc Antony. Cities and shrines such as Delos, Delphi, and Olympia were sacked by all sides, and there was great loss of Greek life. Peace finally came to ravaged Greece in 27 b.c.e. when the emperor Augustus declared Greece to be the Roman province of Achaea. In this new Roman order, Athens retained its status as a university town, and the cities of Corinth and Patrae became major commercial centers. The Greek economy recovered slowly. During the long period of Roman rule, however, no Greek cities ever regained their former political or economic prominence. Greek culture and language continued to flourish only to be transformed after the fourth century c.e. into a Byzantine world focused on Constantinople (now Istanbul).

War and weapons

The warfare of the period was marked by the use of cavalry, elephants, and mercenaries, especially Greeks or soldiers trained in the Greek fashion. It was also an age of large warships and sophisticated naval warfare based on ramming or the use of the grappling hook.

Government and law

In the Hellenistic period, the Greek polis, or city, continued to maintain its own law code, but cities sometimes shared judges in order to ensure impartiality. Citizenship was usually localized in the city, but in some areas of Greece, especially Aetolia, citizenship was regional and based on league membership. During the Roman period, Greece was administered by a governor from Rome, but many cities were declared free states and were exempt from Roman taxation. Local citizenship remained important until 212 c.e., when the Edict of Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all free-born inhabitants of the Roman Empire.

Settlements and city planning

Greek cities such as Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Syria were founded by Hellenistic rulers throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Two such foundations in Greece proper were Cassandreia (formerly Potidaea) and Demetrias (near modern Volos). Civic architecture and town planning became more scientific, and temples such as Olympian Zeus in Athens and Apollo at Didyma, became more monumental. The street-grid system and the Corinthian order became standardized. Arches, cupolas, pillared colonnades, and round buildings such as the Tholos in Delphi were popular. During the Roman period, older Greek cities such as Athens benefited from public works projects subsidized by rich or powerful patrons. The Roman agora (gathering place) in Athens, for example, blended traditional Greek and Roman architectural features under the sponsorship of the emperor Hadrian.

Education and training

Most Hellenistic cities made elementary education available to both males and females in the public gymnasium, which served as a center of learning as well as physical training. More advanced education, especially the study of philosophy and rhetoric, was an option for the wealthy. From the first century b.c.e. onward, many famous Romans, including Cicero and Horace, completed their education in Athens.

Women’s life

The visible role of women in Greek society increased markedly during the Hellenistic period. Olympias, Berenice, and Cleopatra VII, as members of important dynasties, wielded great political power both indirectly and directly. The Thracian Hipparchia, for example, was a prominent student and companion of the late fourth century Cynic philosopher Crates of Thebes. Many contemporary documents testify to the prominence of women in commerce and everyday life, their occasional great wealth, and their ability to manage their own affairs.

Economics

Hellenistic Greece was essentially an urban culture. Few could support themselves in rural communities, and Greece relied heavily on grain imports, especially from Egypt. Greece was part of an elaborate trade network including not only the Mediterranean world but also east Africa and the Red Sea, where there were significant exploration and expansion.

Trade with the western Mediterranean, especially Rome, increased dramatically in the last few centuries b.c.e. Other major trade routes ran through Mesopotamia to India and from the Mediterranean coast into Africa. Sea traffic and commerce were widespread despite threats from pirates. Some coinage was issued by individual Greek cities and more by dynastic rulers. Eventually all coinage was issued from Rome. In addition to grain, important commodities included precious gems and metals, timber, textiles, and slaves. Greece was an important exporter of marble and artwork.

Slavery was a fact of life and an economic mainstay. Anyone, rich or poor, could suddenly become a slave because of the prevalence of piracy on the high seas and capture in war. Slave revolts were not common, as were bankruptcy and calls for cancellation of debts.

Religion and ritual

A general sense of the precariousness of life encouraged a religious revival, especially focused on mystery cults such as that of Dionysus or the goddess Demeter at Eleusis. Such cults promised initiates temporary release from present troubles or at least special treatment in the afterlife. The goddess Tyche (Chance) was also popular in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, as were foreign cults such as those of the Phrygian mother goddess Cybele, the Egyptian goddess Isis, and eventually Christianity. In the midst of such religious syncretism, traditional shrines like those at Delphi and Olympia were maintained but were frequently plundered in war or invasion.

Outside these mystery religions, Greek beliefs in the afterlife offered little solace or promise of a better existence after death. Burial practices show a tendency to demonstrate affection for the deceased and to celebrate their individuality. This is evident both in the modest grave steles of the middle class and in extravagant tombs such as the famous mausoleum of Halicarnassus.

Philosophy

Philosophy was another recourse in a troubled age. Athens served as the intellectual center for Greek philosophical schools throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods. In the fourth century b.c.e., Aristotle’s Peripatetic school produced a scholarly giant in Theophrastus and a political power in Demetrius Phalereus. The same century saw the foundation of several major philosophical movements—Skepticism, Epicureanism, and Stoicism —as well as the career of the great Cynic philosopher Diogenes.

Sports and entertainment

The quadrennial Olympic Games and the other traditional Crown Games at Delphi, Nemea, and Corinth, open only to Greek athletes, served as another important symbol of Hellenic culture. Special dispensation was granted for the Roman emperor Nero to compete during his progress through Greece in 66 c.e. The Olympic Games continued to be held until 393 c.e., when they were abolished by the emperor Theodosius the Great.

Calendars and chronology

The Hellenistic world had no universal calendar. A method of recording time based on the four-year cycle of the Olympic Games had been invented, but most cities still preferred their own idiosyncratic systems. The Seleucids developed a calendar based on the history of their dynasty but lacked the political authority to make it universal. Only with the advent of Roman rule did Greece attain some semblance of calendar uniformity, based on the Roman system and the Julian calendar.

Language and literature

The political chaos of Hellenistic Greece contrasts with its linguistic and cultural unity. During this period, the many dialects of ancient Greece merged into a single, common language known as Koine Greek, which became the lingua franca of a polyglot eastern Mediterranean. Literacy was not unusual, and Hellenistic cities were filled with public documents inscribed in stone. Papyrus (imported from Egypt), slates, and clay tablets served as material for more temporary records.

The cultural center of the Hellenistic world was not Greece but Alexandria in Egypt, where the Ptolemies sponsored a literary and scientific revival. Greek texts were collected from Athens and elsewhere for the library and museum. Several early Alexandrian librarians, representing diverse parts of the Hellenistic world, dominated scholarship and literature in the third and second centuries b.c.e. Zenodotus of Ephesus and Aristarchus of Samothrace were great philologists. Eratosthenes of Cyrene was a great mathematician and geographer. Apollonius Rhodius and Callimachus were scholarly poets of sophisticated verse. Other major authors of the period included the pastoral poet Theocritus of Syracuse and the historian Polybius. The novelists Chariton of Aphrodisias and Xenophon of Ephesus developed a popular prose genre of romance and adventure.

In the second century c.e., Greek learning and literature were revitalized in a movement called the Second Sophistic, which strove to re-create the glory of Classical Athens by the use of archaism in style and Atticism, a form of Greek similar to the Attic dialect of the fifth century b.c.e. Noteworthy in this movement were the orators Aristides and Dio Chrysostom. Their contemporaries included the biographers Plutarch and Flavius Philostratus, Pausanias the Traveler, the historians Appian, Arrian, Dio Cassius, and the novelists Longus and Lucian.

In the third century c.e., Heliodorus of Emesa produced a major novel of romance and adventure called Aethiopica (third century c.e.; An Aethiopian Historie, 1569?). Epigrammatic poetry, on subjects such as love and religious hymns, was revitalized after the fourth century c.e., especially by Gregory of Nazianzus and other Christian authors. Quintus Smyrnaeus wrote an epic poem Posthomerica (c. 375 c.e.; English translation, 1821), which followed the mythological narrative between Homer’s Iliad (c. 800 b.c.e.; English translation, 1616) and the Odyssey (c. 800 b.c.e.; English translation, 1616). The Dionysiaca (fifth century c.e.; English translation, 1940) of Nonnus of Panopolis celebrated the myths of the god Dionysus.

Performing arts

Although some tragedies were written in this period and the plays of the great fifth century b.c.e. masters were still performed, the major performing art of the Hellenistic period was comedy. One of the few Athenian voices in the Hellenistic period was the comic playwright Menander. Mime was popular long into the Roman period but, like music for voice and instruments, is essentially lost. Displays of rhetoric were also popular forms of public entertainment throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Visual arts

Major schools of Hellenistic art were located at Alexandria, Rhodes, and Pergamum. The art of the period is marked by a transition from the idealism of the Archaic and Classical periods to the striking realism of works such as the Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamum or the sculpture Nike of Samothrace. Classical restraint and anonymity gave way to individualism, especially in portrait sculpture, numismatics, and mosaics, in which the artist strove to emphasize personal characteristics and to celebrate the patron. One major area of Hellenistic art, wall paintings, is virtually lost and can be appreciated only through its Roman imitations.

Science and technology

The Hellenistic world saw advances in medicine, science, and technology. Prominent physicians included Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Iulis on Ceos. The emphasis was on anatomy and physiology with a strong interest in poisons and antidotes. Philinus of Cos was more empirical. The close alliance of medicine and religion is illustrated by the popularity of sanctuaries of the god Asclepius at healing centers.

Scientific advances in astronomy and geographic measurements by Aristarchus of Samos, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, Hipparchus of Nicaea, and Posidonius of Apamea showed the influence of Babylonia, as well as outstanding Hellenistic research, scholarship, and ingenuity. The mathematical works of Euclid remained basic points of reference for centuries.

Archimedes of Syracuse made advances in practical mechanics with his invention of a water clock and the dioptra, a portable water level. Aristotle’s student Theophrastus produced works of careful observation and analysis in botany and zoology.

Current views

Although the Greek-speaking world expanded dramatically in the Hellenistic period, it is questionable that this resulted from a deliberate policy of cultural propaganda on the part of Alexander the Great and the Diadochi. Greek military skill and rulers of Greek ancestry certainly dominated the eastern Mediterranean between the death of Alexander and the Roman conquest, and Greek language and Greek culture spread widely as Greek cities were founded throughout the region. Although nineteenth century historians often sought to explain Greek expansionism during the Hellenistic period in terms of Christian missionary zeal and European colonial imperialism, more modern scholars have understood the spread of Greek culture in a less programmatic way and have described a much more multicultural environment in which the Greeks borrowed as much as they loaned to their neighbors.

Bibliography

Green, Peter. Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Reprint. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

Green, Peter, ed. Hellenistic History and Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

Habicht, Christian. Athens from Alexander to Antony. Translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999.

Martin, Thomas R. Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998.

Tarn, W. W., and G. T. Griffith. Hellenistic Civilisation. 3d ed. New York: World, 1952.