History of Colorado

History of Colorado

The history of Colorado is marked by its geographical features, divided as it is by the Rocky Mountains, with rugged territory lying to the west and agriculturally productive plains to the east. Mining in the central and western parts of the state was influential in its early history. At the same time, agriculture and its thirst for water in the parched eastern plains were influential in later decades. Colorado’s mountainous terrain has attracted generations of tourists, who flock to winter and summer recreational attractions.

Colorado History

The earliest inhabitants of the area were nomadic hunters, around 10,000 B.C.E. In the first century C.E., the state's southwestern region was populated by an Ingenous people known as The Basketmakers who lived in the Colorado Plateau and made baskets and other items from plant fibers. By 800, the Cliff Dwellers had established their civilization in the state's mesa country. From 1000 on, the society of the Cliff Dwellers flourished, but around 1300, for it died out for unknown reasons.

Though their origins are unknown, many other Native American peoples populated today's Colorado when White people arrived. Several Apache bands raided Colorado territory, but only one such band, the Jicarilla, lived permanently in Colorado and its environs, mainly in the southeastern portion. Bannock and Shoshone roamed over the northwest corner of the state. The Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Comanche tribes hunted and made war in eastern areas, as did the Kiowa and the Kiowa Apaches, who always accompanied them. The Navajos occasionally entered the state from New Mexico, but the Utes occupied the state's entire central and western portions. Most of the Pueblos inhabited the state's north, in Colorado's famous cliff ruins, sometimes intermarrying with the Utes.

Spanish Exploration

The Spanish became the area’s first European explorers in the sixteenth century.  Francisco Vásquez de Coronado arrived in 1541, searching for prosperous gold cities. During the next 250 years, several Spanish explorers traversed parts of Colorado, including Juan de Ulibarri, who claimed the territory for the Spanish crown.

American Exploration and Settlement

In 1803, parts of Colorado were sold to the United States when Thomas Jefferson's administration concluded the Louisiana Purchase with France. After that, the territory was explored by a series of American expeditions: in 1806 by Zebulon Pike, for whom Pikes Peak is named; in 1820 by Stephen Long; from 1842 to 1853 by John C. Frémont; and in 1853 by the Gunnison-Beckwith Expedition. In 1833, Bent’s Fort, the first permanent American settlement in Colorado, was completed. The area was also inhabited by various nomadic Native American tribes and American “mountain men,” who lived by trapping and fur trading. Among them were those who became the subjects of American folklore, such as Kit Carson and Jim Bridger.

From Territory to Statehood

In 1848, Mexico ceded part of Colorado to the United States with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican War. Two years later, a portion of the western area of modern Colorado became part of Utah Territory. In 1854, some eastern regions were incorporated into the Kansas and Nebraska Territories. In 1858, gold was found in Colorado, first at Cherry Creek near Denver. The following year, a rich gold vein was discovered in Central City. These finds brought thousands of adventurers searching for a new life who adopted the slogan "Pikes Peak or Bust." The miners ignored Native Americans' claims to the land that had been deeded to them in past treaties. In place of Native American lands, newcomers attempted to set up a new Jefferson Territory, which Congress did not approve. After Kansas became a state in 1861, Colorado Territory was organized, with much the exact boundaries as the subsequent state.

Colorado entered the Civil War on the Union side in 1861. It was the scene of significant fighting in the western phases of the war. Other notable events of these early years were wars between White people and Native Americans and many gold and silver strikes. By the late 1860s, new mining methods brought further prosperity and more immigration from the East. The increased population was a critical factor in the territory’s seeking statehood. After several failures, statehood was finally attained in 1876.

Economic and Social Development

Modern Colorado's formation was preceded by a society and economy dominated by decades of gold and silver mining, followed by agricultural development. The same year statehood was achieved, the Leadville area began surrendering its millions of dollars of gold and silver ore. More than a decade later, Cripple Creek was the scene of another notable gold strike. This discovery was especially welcome because the free coinage of silver sent silver mining into a tailspin that the Cripple Creek find helped to offset.

The last of the battles with Native Americans came in 1879 when the Utes rebelled. In the previous uprising by Native Americans in the American West, the Utes massacred Nathan Meeker, an Indigenous agent, and his workers in what would become the town of Meeker in the White River Valley in northwestern Colorado. This massacre resulted in the Utes’ forcible removal to eastern Utah. Some Native Americans, however, appear to have maintained their presence in modest numbers. For example, in 1845, the Jicarilla Apaches were said to number 800 people. According to the 1910 census, there were 694 people; in 1937, the Report of the U.S. Indian Office said there were 714 people.

If Native American wars were ending, other conflicts were not long in arriving. When the Depression struck in 1893, serious labor problems erupted after the federal government canceled its agreement to purchase substantial amounts of silver. Silver miners were thrown out of work; strikes by miners, now employees of mining companies, not independent adventurers, occurred in silver mines in 1893-1894 and 1903-1904 and in coal mines in 1913-1914. These strikes were settled with military force, a graphic reminder that the days of the romantic West were over.

The Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries

The opening of the twentieth century saw the beginning of the natural conservation movement that attracted tourists. In 1906, Congress created Mesa Verde National Park to preserve the remains of ancient Native American culture, and nine years later, Rocky Mountain National Park was established. During these years, the economy depended on agriculture, as Colorado became the most irrigated state in the Union. Canning and other industries grew along with agriculture. In 1899, Colorado's first sugar beet factory began operations at Grand Junction; seven years later, the US Mint opened in Denver.

The advent of another industry, however, augured well for the future when oil production and refining became prominent sources of income. With the plentiful availability of oil throughout the nation came the advent of the automobile. America's love affair with the car and the unsurpassed beauty of western Colorado gave rise to the state's considerable tourist industry, which developed rapidly after World War I. Colorado, moreover, had its oil sources. Small amounts of oil had been discovered in the nineteenth century when, in 1862, the first oil well was drilled near Canon City. However, more and larger fields were found in the next century. By the 1920s, the importance of oil surpassed all other minerals, though not until after World War II and the development of the Rangley oil field in 1946 in northwest Colorado did oil production approach its zenith. Oil production rose from 1.7 million barrels in 1940 to twenty-three million barrels in 1950.

Oil remains an essential part of the state's economy in the twenty-first century. In the 2020s, oil and gas industries consolidated, and in 2021, contributed $14.5 billion to Colorado's gross national product (GDP), or about 3 percent of the state's economy. However, taxpayers were responsible for paying the bill for pollution and damages caused by the oil and gas industry. 

Like the rest of the nation, Colorado suffered considerably during the Great Depression of the 1930s. World War II lifted the state from its doldrums, as oil and minerals were in great demand—military and other federal installations opened in several areas, especially around Denver, the state's capital. In terms of the number of cases and deaths caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, Colorado fared better than many other states. However, like other states, job losses were high, especially among low-wage workers in the hospitality and leisure industries. 

The state's economy remained resilient in 2023 and 2024 despite problems plaguing the nation, such as high interest rates, inflation, worker shortages, and a drop in consumer spending. 

Colorado saw a population surge in the twenty-first century. From 2010 to 2020, its population increased by nearly 15 percent, about twice the rate of the country as a whole. According to the US Census, Colorado's population in 2023 was about 5.9 million, a 1.8 percent increase from 2020. 

Postwar Developments

Colorado’s population, which had grown to eight hundred thousand in 1910, grew swiftly after World War II. With population increase and demand for expansion of agriculture came the need for water. Irrigation began in the nineteenth century. Large irrigation projects existed from the 1860s, but a series of irrigation projects were carried out after the war. In 1947, the Alva B. Adams Tunnel, which carries water eastward through the Rocky Mountains, was completed. Two years later, Cherry Creek Dam, near Denver, was finished. In 1959, the Colorado-Big Thompson Project, a series of dams, reservoirs, and tunnels, was completed, of which the Adams Tunnel is a part. More water-conservation projects were carried out between the 1950s and the 1980s, such as the Colorado River Storage Project, which began in 1956, and the Frying Pan-Arkansas project, which started in the early 1960s and completed in 1985.

Other significant postwar changes in the state’s economy changed the complexion of its society. Manufacturing replaced agriculture in importance by the mid-1950s. Federal agencies sank important new roots in the state, opening the laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards in Boulder in 1954, the United States Air Force Academy in 1958, and the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) in 1966, sunk some 1,200 feet deep in Cheyenne Mountain.

By the 1990s, Colorado had emerged as a significant urban development area below the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains and one of the nation’s most popular recreation areas. For example, the upscale mountain community of Vail serves as an icon of winter sports, and the state’s National Parks and other scenic wonders draw millions of vacationers each year. At the same time, the nation’s academic life benefited from its universities, and several of its political figures reached national stature. If, in its early decades, Colorado, seemingly more connected to the West, felt marginal to powerful eastern states, a century after its admittance to the Union, the state became fully integrated into the nation’s life. Signs of this integration include its thriving urban life, especially in its capital and environs, its significant defense installations, and its sports teams, such as those in professional baseball, basketball, and football.

As of 2023, Colorado had about five million inhabitants. The state has a reputation for offering a top notch lifestyle and being a hub for start-up companies that blend technology with flair. Colorado's emphasis on the outdoors and eco-consciousness solidify its appeal for residents and tourists alike. In 2023, the Biden-Harris administration designated Elevate Quantum Colorado in the Denver-Aurora region as one of thirty-one inaugural Tech Hubs, recognizing its potential for rapid growth in quantum information technology and making it eligible for significant federal funding from the U.S. Department of Commerce.

"Biden-Harris Administration Announces Elevate Quantum Colorado Designated as One of 31 Inaugural Tech Hubs." Economic Development Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, 23 Oct. 2023, eda.gov/news/press-release/2023/10/23/Elevate-Quantum-Colorado. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024.

"Eight Ways to Experience Colorado History." Colorado.com, 16 Feb. 2024, colorado.com/articles/8-ways-experience-colorado-history. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024.

Tassy, Elaine. "On Colorado Day, Four State Historians Share Their Favorite Bits of Centennial State History." CPR News, 1 Aug. 2023, cpr.org/2023/08/01/colorado-fun-history-facts/. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024.

Ubbelohde, Cal, et al. A Colorado History. WestWinds Press, 2015.

United States Census Bureau. "Population Estimates." U.S. Department of Commerce, 2023, census.gov/programs-surveys/popest.html. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024.