History of the Conquest of Mexico by William Hickling Prescott
"History of the Conquest of Mexico" by William Hickling Prescott provides a detailed narrative of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, emphasizing the cultural and historical context of both the conquistadors and the indigenous peoples. The work illustrates how the Spanish, led by Hernando Cortes, capitalized on existing political disunity within the Aztec civilization and the prophecy of Quetzalcoatl, a god expected to return in a form reminiscent of the Spaniards. Prescott recounts the initial encounters between the Spanish and the Aztecs, highlighting the complex dynamics of warfare, diplomacy, and betrayal, which ultimately facilitated the Spanish taking control of Tenochtitlan.
The narrative documents key events such as Cortes' strategic decisions, the critical battles against the Tlascalans, and the eventual uprising of the Aztecs following Montezuma's captivity. Prescott's portrayal of the conquest is richly informed by his extensive background research on Aztec society, although it reflects his personal biases, particularly regarding the Catholic Church's role in the conquest. The text serves as a historical account that not only chronicles the fall of a remarkable civilization but also invites reflection on themes of power, cultural conflict, and the implications of colonialism. This classic work remains significant for those interested in the interplay of history, culture, and the dramatic consequences of conquest.
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History of the Conquest of Mexico by William Hickling Prescott
First published: 1843
Type of work: History
Time of work: 1519-1525
Locale: Mexico
Principal Personages:
Don Diego Velasquez , Governor of CubaHernando Cortes , conqueror of MexicoPedro De Alvarado , one of Cortes’ lieutenantsMarina , Cortes’ Indian mistressMontezuma , Emperor of the AztecsGuatemozin , Montezuma’s nephew and successorCacama , nephew of the emperorPanfilo De Narvaez , Velasquez’ lieutenant
Analysis
Prescott’s observations on Spanish efforts to convert the Aztecs betray his rather marked suspicion of the Catholic Church. His personal biases are less pronounced in other matters. Because Prescott deals with his narrative in dramatic terms and with an abundance of background material, particularly on the Aztec civilization, his HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO has remained the classic account of the death of a civilization which in many ways rivaled ancient Egypt’s.
The success of the Spanish conquest was aided by the Aztec legend of Quetzalcoatl, a benevolent god who, once having lived on earth and departed, was expected to return: tall, white-skinned, dark-bearded. When the first Spanish expeditionary party, led by Juan de Grijalva, made a preliminary exploration of the mainland, it encountered an unfriendly reception on landing. When the Aztecs happened to associate the Spaniards with the legend of Quetzalcoatl, however, they sent Grijalva away with rich gifts. As a result, Velasquez, Governor of Cuba, immediately organized a second expedition, to be led by Hernando Cortes.
Cortes’ armada left Cuba on February 10, 1519, and landed on the island of Cozumel. At that time he acquired two valuable aides: a Spanish soldier named Aguilar, who had been taken captive by the natives of Cozumel during the Grijalva expedition, to serve as an interpreter, and Marina, a girl from the mainland whose mother had sold her on Cozumel. Marina became not only an interpreter but Cortes’ mistress.
When the Spaniards moved on to the mainland, landing on Good Friday at what is now Vera Cruz, they stepped ashore in a Mexico significantly disunited. Montezuma, Emperor of the Aztecs, was a good warrior and a just ruler, but he was also superstitious and a lover of pleasure, with numerous enemies. There was in addition to this political unrest a vague feeling among the people that the return of Quetzalcoatl was imminent: since the days of Columbus, there had been rumors of the Spaniards, and these rumors had somehow fused with the ancient legend. Dissension among the lesser kingdoms and tribes of Montezuma’s empire and the revival of the Quetzalcoatl myth were of great value to the Spaniards in their invasion of Mexico.
Because he sensed mounting resistance to his leadership, Cortes established Vera Cruz as a civil colony rather than a military base; in this way he made the expedition responsible only to the crown, not to the governor of Cuba. Later, when Juan Diaz conspired to turn the expedition back to Cuba, Cortes ordered the destruction of his fleet. With only one small ship left, the men had little to think about but the march forward.
Leaving some men behind to protect the coastal settlement, Cortes began his march toward the capital, Tenochtitlan, now Mexico City. While one of the original purposes of the expedition was the conversion of the Indians to Catholicism, the expedition, once under way, did not delay for missionary activities. Indeed, Father Olmedo, the expedition’s priest, persuaded Cortes not to try to convert all of the heathen along the route.
The first pronounced resistance to the Spaniards took place among the Tlascalans, an agricultural people, but a nation of warriors as well. Two earlier battles with the Tlascalans were indecisive, but a third, fought on September 5, 1519, was in effect a victory for the Spaniards. The Tlascalan leader, Xicotencatl, continued, however, to threaten and to harass the invaders. Cortes forged ahead, his forces plundering as they went, and finally, with Xicotencatl reconciled to submission, the Spaniards arrived at Tlascala itself. In the meantime Montezuma continued in his policy of sending gifts but barring the Spaniards from Tenochtitlan.
At Cholula, Cortes learned through Marina that the natives were planning a conspiracy with Montezuma’s help. Profiting from former enmity between the Cholulans and the Tlascalans, Cortes stationed Tlascalans around the city and proceeded to massacre the treacherous Cholulans.
Suspecting still further hostility, Cortes and his men moved on, passing between the mountains named Iztaccihuatl and Popocatepetl. No further resistance was forthcoming, and the expedition was shortly at a point where the fertile Valley of Mexico lay before them. Confounded by their advance and awed by their power, Montezuma at last sent his nephew Cacama with a message of welcome for the conquistadors. On November 8, 1519, Cortes and his men entered Tenochtitlan, a city built in the middle of a great lake, and Montezuma greeted them with pomp and dignity. Although the Aztecs remained outwardly friendly, Cortes continued to be suspicious of his host because he had received reports from Vera Cruz of troubles instigated by the emperor. Quauhpopoca, governor of the coastal province, was burned for his part in the disturbances, and Montezuma, taken by surprise, was seized and removed to the fortified quarters occupied by the Spaniards. Although a hostage, Montezuma conducted the business of the country as usual.
In 1520, Montezuma formally announced his subservience to Spain; the nobles concurred, and the legend of Quetzalcoatl was revived among the people. Though conditions appeared to be stable, Cortes ordered the rebuilding of his fleet.
Cortes’ relations with Velasquez had now deteriorated to such an extent that the governor outfitted a rival expedition under the leadership of Panfilo de Narvaez. Gonzalo de Sandoval, the governor appointed by Cortes at Villa Rica, maintained a close watch over Narvaez’ attempts to establish a settlement, but Cortes felt compelled to deal with Narvaez personally. Leaving the capital in the care of an aide, Pedro de Alvarado, he marched to the coast with a detachment of troops and Indian allies.
With his band of only 226 men and five horses, Cortes surprised Narvaez and took him prisoner. In Cortes’ absence, revolt broke out in Tenochtitlan. Alvarado, plagued by constant fears of conspiracy, had slaughtered several hundred Aztec nobles during the festival of Huitzilopotchli, the Aztec god of war. Earlier, Cortes had allowed Montezuma’s brother, Cuitlahua, to act as the imperial representative during Montezuma’s captivity. Bitterly vengeful after the massacre, Cuitlahua led the Aztecs in a retaliatory uprising against the Spaniards.
With his own band reinforced by two thousand Tlascalans, Cortes returned hurriedly to the capital. During the first stages of hostilities following the return of Cortes, Montezuma attempted to intercede and pacify the embattled Aztecs, but his people turned on him and he was fatally wounded. Broken and in despair, Montezuma died on June 30, 1520.
During the uprising the Aztecs had destroyed all bridges on causeways leading to the mainland, and the Spanish retreat from the city became chaotic, with heavy losses. On the plains of Otumba, however, the Spaniards and their Tlascalan allies managed to put the Aztecs to flight. The Spaniards retreated into Tlascalan territory, where they could feel safe once more. But the troops were restless after their harrowing retreat, and for a time there seemed to be some chance that the Tlascalans might join the Aztecs in common cause against the invaders. Fortunately, the Tlascalans remained friendly; in fact, their chief, before he died of smallpox, became a Christian—the first successfully converted heathen.
Guatemozin, Montezuma’s nephew and successor, had sworn to drive the Spaniards from his country. As Cortes marched back toward the capital, however, he gathered from friendly tribes more Indian auxiliaries to lead against the Aztecs. Welcomed in Tezcuco by the new prince, Ixtlilxochitl, an enemy of Montezuma, Cortes’ forces advanced for the final subjugation of the Aztec civilization.
More cohesive than Prescott’s companion study on the conquest of Peru, HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO is the author’s most brilliant work. Though the book may lack profound philosophical insight, it is a vivid portrayal of a fascinating historical fact: the subjugation of a whole people by a mere handful of alien adventurers—cruel, daring intriguers who played upon the religious superstitions of their victims.