History of Public Education in the U.S

Public education in America in large part was the product of historical movements that swept the nation, including national incorporation, widespread urbanization, and modern industrialization. Public education began during the 17th century when the Massachusetts Bay Colony instituted compulsory education laws. The 19th century saw the establishment of specialized schools for the mentally and physically handicapped, the expansion of compulsory education laws, and the establishment of freemen's schools. As the country became increasingly industrialized, child labor laws were coupled with further compulsory education laws, and new educational theories were developed. During the 20th century, a number of court cases and legislative initiatives brought about the end of segregation, prohibited prayer in public schools, and improved educational opportunities for disabled and disadvantaged students.

Keywords Apprenticeship; Compulsory Education; Dame School; History of Education; Hornbooks; Public Education; Public Schools; Segregation

Overview

Public education in America has a history dating back nearly to the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock in 1620. Although the first public school appeared well before both the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, the small, independent public schools of centuries past bear little if any resemblance to the system of universal public education now in place in the United States. The factors which led to the inception, growth, and development of public education in America are numerous, and they include not only the pursuit of learning, but also, perhaps more importantly, the development of the nation's philosophy of who should teach and who should be taught.

Public education in America in large part was the product of historical movements that swept the nation, including national incorporation, widespread urbanization, and modern industrialization. In order to glean an accurate understanding of the history of America's educational system, each of these eras in our country's history must be studied in turn.

While these factors constitute a timeline in American educational history, they cannot be fully understood apart from a concurrent examination of the development of educational philosophy, the changing understanding of the purpose and aim of public education, and both the impetus for and impact of legislative decisions and judicial rulings affecting public education.

Therefore, a comprehensive portrayal of the myriad factors that constitute the development of American education requires an examination of 1) the philosophical roots of early-American education, 2) the growth and development of 19th Century public schooling within the newly-formed nation, 3) the impact of urbanization and the industrial revolution on the evolution of public school attendance in the latter half of the 19th Century and early 20th Century, and 4) the increased involvement of government in public education.

Further Insights

Colonial Era

Education in Puritan New England

The first public school in America was established in 1635 in Boston, Massachusetts, in the home of Philemon Pormont. Attendance at the school was free and open to all children. Founded by New England Puritans, the school, called the Boston Latin School utilized religious instruction in the Bible as a launching pad for the study of Latin and Greek classics. It is important to note that, during the colonial era, religion formed the basis for American life, and the local church or meetinghouse was the focal point of each community. To many people, the primary purpose of learning to read was to gain the ability to obtain religious instruction from the Bible.

The year following the opening of the Boston Latin School witnessed the establishment of America's first college, Harvard College, whose founding purpose was to train preachers. Hence, for those fortunate to attend, the college would be an extension of the religious instruction received in local schools.

In addition to local schools, during this period Dame Schools were popular. These schools were for young children ranging in age from 6-8, although often younger. Taught by women, often widows, Dame Schools usually met in the instructors' homes and focused on teaching reading skills rather than on mathematics and writing. Although titled a "school," it was not uncommon for Dame Schools also to function as early day care facilities for colonial children.

Apprenticeship programs were also primary sources of specialized education in colonial America, particularly among the poor. Through apprenticeships, young boys, and by the mid-17th Century girls as well, were paired with a skilled tradesman. The apprentice would spend several years working at his mentor's side, and upon completion of the apprenticeship, it was expected that the student would possess the requisite knowledge and ability to begin working on his own. Beyond teaching only the trade, however, mentors, or "Masters" were also expected to train their apprentices in matters of good moral behavior (Barger, 2004).

In these early American schools, a very common method of instruction was the hornbook. Dating as far back as fifteenth-century Europe, the hornbook was a small wooden paddle on which was mounted a sheet containing lessons. A piece of horn from oxen or sheep and later from materials such as leather or metal, covered the sheet to protect the lesson. Oftentimes, a hole would be placed in the horn handle, and this enabled pupils to fasten these early textbooks to their clothing or carry them around their necks. Standard studies contained on hornbooks included the alphabet, formations of vowels and consonants, and the Lord's Prayer.

In colonial America, education was deemed the responsibility of the family. Parents were ultimately responsible for the rearing and training of their children, and there was an absence of reliance upon government institutions or entities to provide quality education for the young. Nevertheless, in this early colonial world, one can identify the roots of today's compulsory education laws.

As early as 1642, Massachusetts passed a law that required that children be instructed in religious education as well as in the laws of the colony. Yet, the expressed onus for doing so fell not to the state or local communities, but rather to parents and apprenticeship masters. Negligence in either of these areas was punishable by fine. Furthermore, the law stated that parents and masters must "catechize" their children in the principles of religion, or if they were unable to do so themselves, that they must provide for it. The 1642 legislation also stipulated that if parents or masters failed to perform the duties outlined in the law, local authorities could remove the children and place them with masters who would properly instruct them. Although the Massachusetts Law of 1642 stopped well short of establishing a formal school system, its importance as the first piece of legislation to require schooling cannot be underestimated.

Soon after, the Massachusetts Law of 1647 required that every town comprised of 50 families or more hire a teacher for the purpose of instructing the town's children in reading and writing. Moreover, towns of 100 families or more were also required to have a Latin instructor in order to prepare students for entry into Harvard College. Although schooling was still considered a local family responsibility, at times the colonial government would fund payment for these teachers.

Education in the Middle & Southern Colonies

Education in the Middle Colonies differed slightly from that in New England. While schools in New England were primarily Puritan, schools in the Middle colonies were often developed by Mennonites or Quakers. It was German immigrant, teacher, and Mennonite Christopher Dock who, in 1710, penned the first book on pedagogy printed in America. Dock's work, Schul-Ordnung, or School Management, outlined a series of rewards and punishments aimed not at teacher dominance but at gaining student trust and affection (Sass & Ruth).

In the middle colonies, although the primary focus remained religious instruction for the formation of moral character, schools also incorporated a level of practical instruction as well. Among those involved in the development of middle-colony schools was Benjamin Franklin who helped to establish the Academy of Philadelphia in 1751. This Academy later grew into the University of Pennsylvania (Penn in the eighteenth century).

In the southern colonies, too, public education was taking root. Even before the establishment of Roxbury and Harvard, Virginian Benjamin Syms passed away and bequeathed in his will a plot of 200 acres with clear instructions that it was to be used for the establishment of a free school. Another Virginia school soon followed, and by the close of the seventeenth century, public schools could be found in northern, middle, and southern colonies (Tyler, 1897).

Early National Legislation

As government took an increased interest in requiring and providing for the education of children, public schools continued to multiply. As the pivotal events leading up to the unification of the colonies into a nation occurred in the latter portion of the 18th Century, America witnessed additional landmark educational milestones. The two most significant of these were the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. Specifically applicable to the Western Territories, the Land Ordinance of 1785 allotted land in each western township for the establishment of a public school. Two years later, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 provided that since religion, morality, and knowledge were prerequisite to good government, schools should be "encouraged."

Thus, by the time the Constitution became the law of the land, and before even the Bill of Rights had gained ratification, universal public education in America was well on the road to establishment.

Education in the New Nation

Specialized Schools

While public schooling was becoming more widespread, the implementation of government-mandated universal public education still lay well in the future. Nevertheless, significant developments in the 19th Century established a philosophical foundation and showed a practical application for compulsory education. Most significant of these was the establishment of specialized schools for the blind and deaf. The early half of the 19th Century saw the establishment of three such schools:

• The Connecticut Asylum at Hartford for the instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons, founded in 1817 and the first permanent school for the deaf in America;

• The New England Asylum for the Blind, which became the nation's first school of its type when it opened in 1829;

• The New York State Asylum for Idiots, founded in 1851 and authorized by the New York State Legislature.

Such institutions segregated certain members of society for their schooling and led the way for the enactment of compulsory legislation, and many colonies pursued such legislation as a means of gaining statehood and, consequently, uniting with fellow-states to form a nation (Baker, 2004, p. 33).

Compulsory Education Legislation & the National Teacher Association

In 1852, Massachusetts enacted the first compulsory education legislation in the nation. The act required that children ages 8 through 14 attend school for a minimum of three months out of the year, and of those three months, six weeks were required to be consecutive. Violation of this act was punishable by fine. Nevertheless, exceptions were made for certain children, including those who were deemed mentally or physically unable to attend.

Other states soon followed suit, and by 1885, sixteen states had passed compulsory attendance legislation. It would not be until 1918, however, that all states would have such educational requirements as part of their state law.

In addition to compulsory attendance legislation, the 1850s witnessed another educational milestone: the formation of the National Teachers Association in 1857. Founded by a small group of educators in Philadelphia, this group evolved into what is today known as the National Educators Association, the largest association of its kind in the world.

Segregation

Yet, while the popularity of public education continued to rise during the 19th Century, the opportunity to attend was not equal for all, particularly in the southern states.

Throughout the 18th Century, while there were instances of integrated schools, most often in the Northern states, segregation between black and white was much more common. Yet, many slaves viewed illiteracy as a perpetrating factor of slavery; hence, many pursued education, often at great cost to themselves, as offenses such as the schooling of a slave could be met with severe punishment of both teacher and pupil. Nevertheless, African-Americans recognized the value of education to freedom, and in addition to learning individually, some established secret schools for the purpose of education (Dodge, 2006).

Following the Civil War, some freedmen sought to gain from the government a right to education. Even in many freedmen's schools, however, conditions were difficult, with lack of proper materials, crowded school rooms, and students who often themselves were under-clothed and under-fed. Nevertheless, the speed with which many African-Americans understood and mastered materials often came as a surprise to their instructors (Dodge, 2006).

Despite their new free standing, however, African Americans faced many obstacles in the road to gaining equal access to public education, and the end of the 19th Century witnessed the issuance of the famous United States Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson. In this 1892 case, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of Louisiana's "separate but equal" law. This ruling served as a basis for implementing and continuing the practice of segregated education.

Industrialization & Integration

Extended Compulsory Education Laws

While segregation between black and white remained intact for the next 58 years, national industrialization provided the impetus for integration of immigrant children into their new nation.

The turn of the 20th Century and the Industrial Revolution brought a marked increase in immigration. As parents went to work in cities and factories, children went to school in order to learn English and assimilate into their new culture. Despite the age of children, many families saw employment as more beneficial than education and preferred that their children work rather than study. This reality, coupled with the recognition of the negative effects of child labor and an uneducated populace, led to child labor laws and additional compulsory education laws. By 1918, compulsory education legislation existed in every state. By the following year, legislation providing funds for transporting students to school existed in every state as well.

Changing Educational Theories

The early decades of the 20th Century also witnessed significant development in philosophical thoughts related to education. American psychologist and educator G. Stanley Hall produced works investigating the relationship between adolescent development and education, and in 1916, American psychologist Lewis Terman announced what is today known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. This test helped lay the groundwork for standardized testing that it still used today.

In this same year, John Dewey published Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. Dewey popularized the philosophy of experiential education, which encourages focusing more on a child's learning experience and less on the teacher's espousing a rigid formula for instruction.

Modern Legislation

The National Defense Education Act & the Elementary & Secondary Education Act

As new philosophies of education slowly overtook traditional ones, the role of the government in providing education also grew. In 1958, Congress passed the first comprehensive federal legislation regarding education. A reaction to the Cold War, the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was born out of a necessity that the United States continue to have highly specialized technicians and engineers in order to compete with Soviet technology. In addition to funding loans for college, the NDEA provided support for improved mathematics and scientific instruction in elementary and secondary schools.

The following decade, Congress followed the NDEA with the ESAA, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. While the NDEA focused on subject matter, the ESAA focused on social factors and sought to provide quality education to lower-income children. Despite increases in funding, however, the measure has fallen short of complete fulfillment of its mission as many students from lower-income families continue to struggle educationally.

Brown v. Board of Education & Engel v. Vitale

The 1950s also saw the end of 58 years of legal segregation. On May 17, 1954, in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court overturned its 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision, stating that separate educational facilities are by definition unequal. While discrimination in public schooling often continued, it no longer had the legal backing of the United States government, and Brown v. Board of Education paved the way for full educational equality for black and white Americans.

Perhaps the most significant 20th Century legal occurrence affecting education, however, came in 1962 with the Supreme Court ruling in Engel v. Vitale. In its decision, the Court held that prayer in public schools violated the Constitution. The following year, in Abington v. Schempp, the Court further ruled that official use of the Bible in public education was unconstitutional.

The Education of All Handicapped Children Act

By the latter half of the 20th Century, education was both universal and integrated, yet there remained individuals who still could not benefit from the public education system, namely, those who were physically handicapped or otherwise disabled. In 1975, Congress sought to change this with the passage of Public Law 94-142, the Education of All Handicapped Children Act. Not only did the act require that appropriate education be extended to handicapped children, but it also implemented a system of Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) whereby disabled students' educational needs are evaluated and, based on the evaluation, students receive individualized educational and other services aimed at helping them achieve specified goals.

The U.S. Department of Education & the No Child Left Behind Act

In 1980, Congress officially established the U.S. Department of Education as a Cabinet agency. Although the Department of Education acknowledges that education remains primarily a responsibility of state and local government, increases in federal mandates on education have been met with resistance by some states even as they have been concurrently welcomed by many parents.

In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) became the law of the land. The NCLB was a reauthorization of the ESAA and instituted requirements for both schools and teachers. Among these requirements are annual testing, statewide standards for measuring educational progress, publicized school report cards to inform parents of both school and teacher performances, penalties for schools who fail to achieve set standards in certain areas, and school choice options for parents whose children attend failing schools. While many parents welcomed the NCLB Act, many teachers viewed it as an under-funded mandate, setting requirements but providing no funding to achieve them. The National Education Association (NEA), the country's largest professional employee association, called for changes in the act to lessen penalties on schools and increase federal funding for initiatives.

The recession and global financial crisis that began in 2007 resulted in sustained and repeated budget cuts to public education, while NCLB mandated increased spending on programs and assessments. Federal funding decreased, but the primary source of school funding - property taxes - was greatly effected by the crash of real estate values nationwide. More than half the states instituted policy changes to allow greater flexibility for school districts to spend what monies they did receive, but year over year cuts required drastic reductions in staffing and programs (especially non-core subjects such as arts and music) and increased class sizes (Cavanagh, 2011). Meanwhile, schools struggled to raise standardized test scores and prevent flight to private schools or higher achieving public schools. Charter schools were met with parental enthusiasm, though performance of these alternative models was mixed, and per-student funding was lost to public schools with the exit of students attending charters. Advocates of charters, however, argued that the challenge of alternative models would force improvements at traditional schools (Maloney, Batdorff, May, & Terrell, 2013).

From the humble school in Philemon Pormont's Boston home to the present-day structure consisting of public school systems nationwide, education in American history boasts a long and vibrant heritage. As the effort continues to ensure that all children have equal access to quality education, public schooling in America will continue to play an integral part in our nation's future.

Terms & Concepts

Apprenticeship: The process of pairing a youth with a mentor or "Master" who is expert at a trade for the purpose of training the youth in the study of that trade as a lifetime career.

Compulsory Education: Education which is required by law.

Dame School: Type of school for young children popular in colonial and early America, usually taught by a woman, often a widow, and stressed reading over other subjects.

Hornbook: A small wooden paddle on which was mounted parchment containing lessons. The parchment was covered with horn. Colonial children utilized hornbooks to study materials such as the alphabet, letter formations, and the Lord's Prayer.

Public Education: Education required by the government and open to the public, funded by tax revenue.

Public Schools: Schools supported by funding from the public, usually via tax revenue, and providing free education for children.

Segregation: The act of separation based on race, class, or ethnicity; often used in reference to educational segregation between black and white students in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Bibliography

Baker, B. (2004). The functional liminality of the not-dead-yet-students, or, how public schooling became compulsory: a glancing history. Rethinking History, 8 , 5-49. Retrieved January 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12583895&site=ehost-live

Barger, R. (Ed.). (2004). History of American education web project. Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/.

Cavanagh, S. (2011). Educators regroup in recession's aftermath. Education Week, 30, 6-10. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=57468158&site=ehost-live

ESEA: It's time for a change! NEA's positive agenda for the ESEA reauthorization. (2006). Retrieved January 7, 2007, from http://www.nea.org/esea/posagendaexecsum.html

Lauderdale, W. (1975). Moral intentions in the history of American education. Theory Into Practice, 14 , 264. Retrieved January 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5204111&site=ehost-live

Maloney, L., Batdorff, M., May, J., & Terrell, M. (2013). Education's fiscal cliff, real or perceived? public education funding during the economic downturn and the impact on public charter schools. Journal of School Choice, 7, 292-311. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90134821&site=ehost-live

Massachusetts Bay School Law. (1642). Retrieved January 28, 2007, from http://personal.pitnet.net/primarysources/schoollaw1642.html

Mirel, J. (2011). Bridging the "widest street in the world" reflections on the history of teacher education. American Educator, 35, 6-12. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=62252523&site=ehost-live

Penn in the eighteenth century: Academy of Philadelphia curriculum. Retrieved January, 27, 2007, from University of Pennsylvania Archives http://www.archives.upenn.edu/histy/features/1700s/acad_curric.html

Pulliam, J.D., and Van Patten, J.J. (2013). The history and social foundations of American education. Tenth edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Sass, E. (Ed.) (2005). American educational history: A hypertext timeline. Retrieved January 27, 2006, from http://www.cloudnet.com/~edrbsass/educationhistorytimeline.html

Schooling, education, and literacy in colonial America. (n.d.) Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://alumni.cc.gettysburg.edu/~s330558/schooling.html

T.E.C. (1973). Description of a dame or primary school in Boston about 1825. Pediatrics, 51 , 475. Retrieved January 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6718623&site=ehost-live

Tyler, L. (1897). Education in colonial Virginia. Part III: Free schools. William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine, 6, 70-85. Retrieved November 27, 2007, from http://www.dinsdoc.com/tyler-3.htm

United States Department of Education. Accessed January, 27, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov

Walsh, K. (2013). 21st-century teacher education. Education Next, 13, 18-24. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87934932&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Cox, W. Jr. (2000). The original meaning of the establishment clause and its application to education. Regent University Law Review, 13 , 111-143. Retrieved January 28, 2007, from www.regent.edu/education/pdfs/publications/cox/Original_Meaning.pdf

Derrick, M. G. (2001). Reflections on the history of gender bias and inequality in education. Essays in Education, 1.

De Young, A. (1987). The Status of American rural education research: An integrated review and commentary. Review of Educational Research, 57 , 123- 148. Retrieved January 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19734469&site=ehost-live

Henderson, C., Corner, J. P., Lagemann, E. C., Paige, R., Barber, B. R., Doyle, D. P., et al. (2004). Brown 50 years later. American School Board Journal, 191 , 56-64. Retrieved January 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12597933&site=ehost-live

Larson, E. (1998). Summer for the gods: The Scopes trial and America's continuing debate over science and religion. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Pulliam, J., & Van Patten, J. (2007). History of education in America (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.