Hittites

Date: c. 2000-1100 b.c.e.

Locale: Central and eastern Anatolia, northwest Syria

Hittites

An understanding of Hittite history and culture can be derived from thousands of cuneiform texts coming primarily from Hattusas (modern Bogazköy, Turkey), the Hittite capital. The name “Hittite” comes from the Hittite name for central Anatolia, Hatti. Although it is not known when and from where the first Indo-European ancestors of the Hittites entered Anatolia, individuals with Hittite-like names occur in the Old Assyrian texts from Anatolian trade centers (c. 1920-1740 b.c.e.). One king mentioned in the Assyrian texts was a certain Anittas who ruled from Kushshar, a city that the early Hittite kings claimed as their city of origin. Anittas (who was probably a Hittite) claims to have destroyed Hattusas, although it became the seat of power of the Hittite kings for more than five centuries (c. 1700-1200 b.c.e.). The Hittite kings did not, however, claim descent from Anittas.

Beginning with Hattusilis I, approximately fifteen kings are known to have ruled from Hattusas in the Old Kingdom (c. 1700-1500 b.c.e.). The Hittite state was formed through expansion in this period. During the reign of Hattusilis I (r. c. 1650-c. 1620 b.c.e.), the Hittites expanded into northern Syria and west into the land of Arzawa. Mursilis I (c. 1600 b.c.e.) raided the city of Babylon (c. 1595 b.c.e.) and ended the Old Babylonian Empire. However, the Hittites were unable to expand into Mesopotamia, and Hittite control of eastern territories seems to have collapsed soon thereafter.

Hittite influence in western Asia Minor and northern Syria was reasserted in the period of the New Kingdom by Tudhaliyas II (r. c. 1420-1370 b.c.e.). The greatest expansion took place during the reign of Suppiluliumas I (r. c. 1380-1346 b.c.e.) and his immediate successors. The Hittites conquered the powerful Hurrian state of Mitanni, controlled all of Syria north of Damascus, and fought with the Egyptians in Syro-Palestine. Hattusilis III (r. c. 1286-c. 1265 b.c.e.) made a treaty with Ramses II and gave him a Hittite princess in marriage. This treaty stayed in effect until the fall of Hittite power in about 1200 b.c.e. However, due to a number of factors, Hittite power began to decline during the reigns of the next three monarchs, Tudhaliyas IV, Arnuwandas III, and Suppiluliumas II. The rising power of Assyria in northern Iraq severely truncated Hittite power in Syria. Ahhiyawa (possibly the Hittite term for the Achaeans), a powerful kingdom to the west, threatened Hittite power in western Anatolia. The Hittites also had serious troubles with the rival Hittite kingdom of Tarhuntassha in the south.

What is not certain, however, is what brought about the fall of the Hittite capital, Hattusas. Invaders from the west, usually identified with the Sea Peoples in Egyptian sources, may have been the catalyst for its end. Contrary to popular scholarly tradition, Hittite power did not end with the fall of Hattusas; successor dynasties continued at Tarhuntassha and southeast at Carchemish on the Upper Euphrates. Smaller neo-Hittite states continued in southeast Anatolia and Syria for at least the next five hundred years (c. 700 b.c.e.). These states were often in conflict with rival Aramean dynasties. Both Aramean and neo-Hittite states were absorbed into the Assyrian world state. Passages from II Samuel and I-II Kings that mention the Hittites most likely refer to the neo-Hittite states of Syria.

Language and writing

Hittite shares a number of linguistic features with Luwian, another Indo-European language of Anatolia, and distantly resembles other ancient Indo-European tongues, including Sanskrit and Mycenaean Greek. Furthermore, the Hittites and other Anatolian Indo-European peoples adopted much of their vocabulary from the indigenous Anatolians. These were primarily terms for social status and certain professions, such as priests and artisans.

The Hittite language was written for nearly five centuries (c. 1700-1200 b.c.e.) in the cuneiform script developed in southern Mesopotamia. The Hittites borrowed the script either from the Assyrian trade colonies or from the Old Babylonian script used in Syria at Tell Meskene/Emar and elsewhere. The Hittites modified the cuneiform system by giving new phonetic values to certain signs. The Hittite kings also employed a hieroglyphic script to write a dialect of Luwian.

Social and political structures

At the pinnacle of Hittite society sat the king, who, unlike Egyptian monarchs, was not considered divine during his lifetime. However, the king was believed to become a god at death. Not only was there an official cult for the spirits of deceased kings, but also they were pictorially represented with headgear similar to those of Hittite deities. The king was considered the appointed regent for the gods and was responsible for the welfare of the people. He was also considered a priest (and often depicted in reliefs as such) and thus was considered sacred and constantly went through a series of purification rituals. He was even brought back from distant campaigns to preside over important religious festivals. The Hittite king also presided as the supreme judge over the land and thus heard many of the most important cases concerning capital crimes.

Although the Hittite queen’s position is not as well known as that of the king, she was given great responsibility. She often was depicted seated next to her husband in royal iconography and was usually considered the high priestess of the land, thus controlling a great amount of the temple wealth. The queen mother also exercised great authority. For example, Puduhepa, wife of Hattusilis III, corresponded independently with Ramses II of Egypt and made policy concerning a number of the Syrian vassals of the Hittites.

Hittite princes (the male descendants of Hittite kings) were often depicted on rock reliefs. The king usually designated his eldest son as crown prince, although that decision was changed on a number of occasions. Hattusilis I replaced one son with another, and later replaced him with a grandson. Princes held important positions such as governors of major provincial cities and were even installed as hereditary kings in some regions. There was also a ruling class derived from the blood relatives of the king. They were employed as high officials in the kingdom and were considered the king’s advisers. They also acted as regents for child kings.

Hittite law distinguished between the freeborn and the slave, although most were not exempt from some form of compulsory duty. Free persons were able to buy and sell, enter into contracts, change their residence, and marry and divorce. Hittite slaves were commodities that could be bought and sold. Runaway slaves were returned to their master, even if they had crossed national boundaries. However, slaves could be married to free persons, although if the marriage was dissolved, those children who remained with the slave parent were considered slaves. If a slave took a woman for a wife, she condescended to his social level as long as they were married. It is apparent from these laws that a Hittite slave could have his own wealth with which to pay the bride price. If the bride’s parents paid the bride price, they relinquished the right to redeem their daughter.

Thus, the legal system recognized the rights and responsibilities of slaves. In fact, district governors were ordered not to pay less attention to cases concerning slaves and others less fortunate. A slave paid half the amount of a free person as reparation for his crimes and only received half the reparation. Slaves, however, suffered corporal punishment, including the loss of their noses and ears, for a series of offenses. If the slave committed a crime that required payment, it was paid by his master. If the master refused, the slave was given over to the injured party. Some slaves (both male and female) were literate. Debt slavery also existed in Hittite Anatolia.

Law and statecraft

The Hittite law code is a cuneiform law collection of about two hundred edicts compiled at Hattusas, the Hittite capital in Anatolia about 1650 b.c.e. (although there are references to earlier pre-Hittite laws). In addition, there is an abridged version written three centuries later that contains some modifications. The laws were divided into two series; the first hundred after the words “if a man” and the second hundred after the words “if a vine.” This is not code in the strict sense of the word because not every type of legal case is represented. It is in fact a collection of cases that were originally precedents, not unlike other ancient Near Eastern law codes.

In the archives from Hattusas, there is an extensive collection of treaty documents that describe Hittite relations with vassal states and other international powers. These documents, literary in nature, are structured with six major sections: the speaker’s introduction, a historical prologue, stipulations, a statement concerning the document, divine witnesses, and a list of curses for recalcitrance and blessings for compliance.

Religion

The city of Hattusas may have contained as many as twenty temples, as well as a “temple city” in the upper city. It also appears that every city and town in the Hittite realm had at least one temple. Temple personnel included chief priests (usually of royal descent), religious technicians, and a plethora of persons employed for the service of the temple. Hittite myths show influence from indigenous Anatolian (Telepinu, the vanishing god), Hurrian-Mesopotamian (song of Kumarbi, and song of Ullikimmi), and West Semitic traditions (Elkunirsha). There does not appear to be any reliance on Indo-European mythical traditions. There are many Hittite documents concerning their religious cult, calendars, seasonal festivals, and magical rituals.

Material culture

The Hittite diet consisted in part of several cereals and a large variety of fruits and vegetables (beans, chick peas, lentils, cucumbers, onions, leeks, and garlic). Wine and raisins were produced from vineyards, and at least three varieties of beer (and “beer-honey”) were known. Meat, lard, butter, and cheeses were derived from such livestock as cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs.

The Hittites had a certain level of town planning for their cities, with relatively straight streets (covered with coarse gravel) that contained small channels in the center. Private houses were usually constructed of mudbrick and contained a courtyard at the front of the residence. Some houses were built with a second story. Although the Hittites did not invent iron technology, they used it for luxury items, and reserved the use of bronze for military purposes.

Bibliography

Bryce, Trevor. The Kingdom of the Hittites. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Gurney, O. R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. London: Folio Society, 1999.

Gurney, O. R. Some Aspects of Hittite Religion. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1976.

Hoffner, H. A., Jr. “Histories and Historians of the Ancient Near East: The Hittites.” Orientalia 49 (1980): 283-332.

Hoffner, H. A., Jr. Hittite Myths. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990.

Hoffner, H. A., Jr. The Laws of the Hittites: A Critical Edition. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.

Macqueen, J. G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. 2d ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 1986.