Hyksos
The Hyksos were a group of nonnative rulers who established dominance over parts of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, roughly from 1664 to 1555 BCE. The term "Hyksos" translates to "rulers of foreign countries," and they are believed to have originated from the Semitic peoples of Palestine, particularly the Amorites. This period was marked by fragmentation in Egypt, leading to the rise of competing dynasties. The Hyksos established their capital at Avaris (modern Tell ed-Dab'a) and controlled significant territories, extending their influence as far south as Gebelein.
Historical accounts, particularly from the Egyptian historian Manetho, describe the Hyksos as invaders, although archaeological evidence indicates a more nuanced interaction, suggesting they may have assimilated with existing populations. The Hyksos kings adopted many aspects of Egyptian culture, including traditional royal titles and religious practices, and they prominently featured the god Seth in their worship. By the mid-sixteenth century, the native Egyptian rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty, led by figures like Kamose and Ahmose I, successfully expelled the Hyksos, heralding the start of a new era of Egyptian power with the establishment of the Eighteenth Dynasty.
On this Page
Hyksos
Date: c. 1664-c. 1555 b.c.e.
Locale: Egypt
Hyksos
The term “Hyksos” (HIHK-sohs) derives from an Egyptian term translated “rulers of foreign countries” and refers to a group who established a line of nonnative rulers that controlled portions of Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period of Egyptian history.
Manetho, an Egyptian who wrote in the third century b.c.e., described the Hyksos as an invading horde of Asiatics who despoiled Egypt and established a tyrannical rule over the country from their delta enclave at Avaris. Although elements of Manetho’s version may be based in historical events, an examination of the evidence suggests a more complex picture. Both archaeological evidence and certain personal names of the period identify the Hyksos as Semitic peoples, predominantly Amorites, who came from Palestine. The Egyptians called such people “Asiatics”; numbers of Asiatics, usually in small groups, had peaceably migrated into the Egyptian delta over the centuries preceding the Hyksos era. These Asiatics became an established part of the Egyptian population by the time of the powerful Twelfth Egyptian Dynasty (1991-1786 b.c.e.).
By the close of the Twelfth Dynasty, centralized control over the land had collapsed and Egypt entered an era of fragmentation (the Second Intermediate Period, Thirteenth through Seventeenth Dynasties) with competing dynasties emerging in various parts of the land. In the northeastern delta of Egypt, a line of Hyksos kings established themselves at Avaris (modern Tell ed-Dabՙa). Whether this was a result of centuries of infiltration or a new influx of Asiatics from Palestine who united with the preexisting Asiatic population of the delta remains a debated point. What is clear is that the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 1664-c. 1555 b.c.e.) were Asiatics known to the native Egyptians as Hyksos; they controlled not only the delta but also other sections of Egypt as far south as Gebelein and exercised some authority over the native rulers in Thebes (Seventeenth Dynasty). Ancient lists record the names of six kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty. Khayan and Apophis, two names found in widely scattered contexts even outside Egypt, must have been great kings of this dynasty whose influence extended over much Egypt. Manetho’s Sixteenth Dynasty, sometimes referred to as the lesser Hyksos kings, probably refers to Asiatic lords who served the Hyksos kings at Avaris.
A resurgent Seventeenth Dynasty based in Thebes drove out the Hyksos in the mid-sixteenth century. Kamose and Ahmose I led Egyptian forces against Hyksos strongholds, finally taking Avaris by siege. Ahmose pursued the Hyksos into southern Palestine, where he besieged the Hyksos base at Sharuhen. Ahmose’s actions broke the power of the Hyksos in Egypt and signaled a new era of Egyptian power commencing with the Eighteenth Dynasty, founded by Ahmose.
The Hyksos kings readily assimilated Egyptian culture and in most respects presented themselves as native kings. For example, Hyksos kings adopted traditional Egyptian royal titles, including the name of the god Re, and supported Egyptian learning as suggested by the Rhind Mathmatical Papyrus inscribed under Apophis I. The god Seth was given prominence among the Hyksos kings, a god whose ambivalence in Egyptian theology as an opponent of Osiris and Horus may have permitted an assimilation to Seth of foreign elements at home with the Hyksos. Hyksos names include Asiatic divine names including Anat. Recent excavations at sites in the eastern delta (Tell ed-Dabՙa, Tell el-Maskhuta) have yielded more clues to their native culture. Human burials accompanied with donkeys, certain weapons, a style of scarabs, and temple styles found at these sites provide strong links with Middle Bronze Age II culture (c. 1850-c. 1550 b.c.e.) found in Palestine.
Bibliography
Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Seters, J. van. The Hyksos: A New Investigation. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1966.
Trigger, B. G., et al. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press, 1983.