Indian Mutiny
The Indian Mutiny of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Rebellion, was a significant uprising against British colonial rule in India. Sparked by the introduction of the Enfield rifle and its controversial cartridges, which were offensive to both Hindu and Muslim soldiers, the revolt quickly escalated beyond a mere sepoy rebellion to include civilians from diverse backgrounds. Key figures, such as Lakshmi Bai, the rani of Jhansi, emerged as prominent leaders, rallying various factions against British forces. The rebellion saw intense battles throughout northern India, with notable uprisings in cities like Delhi and Lucknow, leading to widespread violence on both sides.
Though the British ultimately suppressed the rebellion, the upheaval resulted in substantial political changes, including the dissolution of the East India Company and the establishment of direct British governance under Queen Victoria. The events of the mutiny marked a pivotal moment in the rise of Indian nationalism, reflecting growing discontent with colonial policies that disregarded local customs and governance. This complex historical episode continues to be a subject of study, highlighting the struggles for autonomy and identity in colonial India.
Indian Mutiny
At issue: Indian nationalism, respect for Indian religion and culture
Date: January 22, 1857-July 8, 1858
Location: Northern India
Combatants: Indian insurrectionists vs. British East India Company regulars and British settlers
Principal commanders: British, General Sir Colin Campbell (1792–1863), General Sir Hugh Henry Rose (1801–1885); Indian, Lakshmi Bai, rani of Jhansi (1827?-1858), Nana Sahib (1825?-1860?), Tantia Topi (1819?-1859), Kunwar Singh (1777–1858)
Principal battles: Meerut, Cawnpore, Delhi, Chinhat, Siege of Lucknow, Jhansi, Kunch, Kalpi, Gwalior
Result: Reassertion of British rule but with moderate political reform
Background
Since their victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British colonialists had assumed cultural superiority over India, ignoring native traditions and trying to impose European values. Naturally this policy generated ill-feeling among the Indians. Their resentment, coupled with the beginnings of Indian nationalism, would flare into open revolt.
The spark, not the cause, of the mutiny was the British decision (1856) to issue the Enfield rifle to all their native Indian soldiers (sepoys). The cartridges had to be bitten and were allegedly greased with a mixture of pig and cow fat, abhorrent to Hindus and Muslims alike. The “cartridge question” first came to a head at Dum Dum, near Calcutta (January 22, 1857). More than just a sepoy rebellion, the mutiny involved civilian Hindus and Muslims from all walks of life.
A British law in India, the doctrine of lapse, specified that if the native ruler of an independent state died without a natural heir, that state became forfeit to the British. Thus, when the raja of Jhansi died in 1853, his adopted son and widow, Lakshmi Bai, were disinherited. However, she refused to yield. An uneasy standoff between her and the British endured until she joined the mutiny, perhaps with some reluctance, in the summer of 1857. She became the rebellion’s greatest leader.
Action
After Colonel George Munro Carmichael-Smyth sentenced 85 sepoys to ten years of hard labor on April 24, 1857, for refusing to load the Enfield cartridge, 2,350 sepoys arose against 2,000 British regulars, freed the prisoners, massacred civilian men, women, and children at Meerut (May 10, 1857), then fled the following day to Delhi, which had no British garrison, and killed about 50 Europeans there on May 16. Throughout the rest of May, mutineers from all over northern India rallied at Delhi. The British besieged Delhi (June 8-September 20) and captured it at great cost.
Indian troop mutinies were typically followed immediately by massacres of local British populations. This happened at Lucknow (May 30), Shahjahanpur (May 31), Moradabad (June 1), Sitapur (June 3), Jhansi (June 6), and Gwalior (June 14).
Around November, during the Cawnpore campaign (June 4-December 6, 1857), Nana Sahib turned over the military leadership of the rebellion to Tantia Topi, a better soldier.
Brigadier General Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence lost at Chinhat (June 30, 1857) and withdrew into Lucknow, where he died of his wounds on July 4. The Siege of Lucknow lasted through the British reinforcement by Major General Sir Henry Havelock on September 25, 1857, and evacuation by General Sir Colin Campbell on November 17.
After Campbell became commander in chief on August 17, 1857, the tide slowly began to turn in favor of the British. General Sir Hugh Henry Rose besieged Jhansi (March 23, 1858), captured it on April 3, and occupied its fort on April 5. During the final struggle, Lakshmi Bai made a daring horseback escape with her young son tied to her back on April 4.
Kunwar Singh constantly harassed the British until he died of his wounds on April 26.
Rose defeated Tantia Topi at Kunch (May 7, 1858) and captured the arsenal at Kalpi from Nana Sahib and Lakshmi Bai (May 22, 1858). The rani of Jhansi and Tantia Topi recaptured Gwalior on June 1. Fighting on horseback with a sword in each hand and the reins in her teeth, Lakshmi Bai was killed in a skirmish at Kotah-ki-Serai on June 17.
Rose defeated Tantia Topi at Gwalior (June 19, 1858), entered Gwalior Fort on June 20, and detached his subordinates to pursue Indians fleeing to Jaora Alipur on June 21. Tantia Topi waged guerrilla war until his capture on April 8, 1859, and execution ten days later. Nana Sahib escaped to Nepal, where he is presumed to have died. General Sir James Hope Grant suppressed significant resistance in Oude from June, 1858 to January, 1859.
Aftermath
Parliament abolished the East India Company on August 2, 1858. Queen Victoria assumed crown sovereignty over India on November 1. These events, which constituted a moderate political reform, were a victory of sorts for the rebels.
Bibliography
Keene, H. George. British Administration During the Revolt of 1857. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications, 1985.
Palmer, J. A. B. The Mutiny Outbreak at Meerut in 1857. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1966.
Stokes, Eric. The Peasant Armed: The Indian Revolt of 1857. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.
Taylor, P. J. O., ed. A Companion to the “Indian Mutiny” of 1857. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Watson, Bruce. The Great Indian Mutiny: Colin Campbell and the Campaign at Lucknow. New York: Praeger, 1991.