Iron Age

The Iron Age (1200–1 BCE) followed the Bronze Age in the three-tiered classification system of ancient civilizations described by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen: the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. One thousand years before ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, ironmaking emerged to change the landscape of civilization. This dark metal changed everything from agriculture to wars and weaponry. In west Africa and southwestern Asia people realized dark rocks could be shaped into tools and weapons (1500 BCE). This same discovery did not reach Europe for another 500 years. In the British Isles iron was skillfully used by the famous Celts. Through warfare, they spread iron technology throughout much of the continent. This time period experienced several notable events and innovations, such as the first Olympic Games, the first democracy, and the written alphabet. The rudder and vessels with oars revolutionized maritime trade and navies. Plows with iron tips improved farming and water wheels provided much-needed irrigation.

Brief History

The Iron Age arose with the discovery and widespread use of iron. Bronze is made of copper and tin. While copper is plentiful, tin is not. To complicate matters, the two metals are rarely found near each other, which is why trade during the Bronze Age was so important. Ancient metallurgists were forced to look for another source of metal as the Bronze Age collapsed, as they no longer had tin to make bronze. Iron was not a new discovery; the Hittites had used iron since 2000 BCE. Bronze, however, was the preferred metal for many reasons. Iron was not much harder than bronze. Bronze could be easily melted in a pot over a fire, whereas ironmaking required a furnace and carefully controlled temperatures. Overall, extracting and smelting iron is a much more complicated process, but once metallurgists began to work with iron an important discovery was made: steel.

Ironworkers discovered a small amount of carbon (0.2 to 2.1 percent) added to iron made steel. Steel is one of the hardest metals on Earth—steel is stronger, cheaper, and lighter than bronze. Its strength could create a better edge for a sword, as just one applicable example. Iron took the place of bronze in the Middle East (1100 BCE), although bronze continued to be used for certain applications. Eventually, the metal spread to Europe, but because iron ore was widely available, metalworking was not dependent on establishing and maintaining new trade networks. Soldiers could be easily equipped with iron and steel weapons, thereby enabling the creation and outfitting of larger armies. Bigger armies with better weapons meant kingdoms that had mastered the skill of ironworking could expand and the Iron Age saw the rise and fall of several kingdoms or empires. The Assyrians were skilled ironworkers and this helped them conquer many lands. Other empires during the Iron Age included the Israelites, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Just as ironmaking transformed warfare, it also transformed architecture. Throughout this time period, carving and working with stone became easier and stone architecture replaced old mud brick designs. Cities became known for their extravagant palaces, gardens, and zoos, such as Nineveh and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

Overview

In ancient metalworking iron was known as "stones from heaven." Meteorites were often composed of large amounts of metallic iron. Archeologists posit the first iron extracted by a human was likely by fire at the base of a cliff. If the cliff was iron-rich and was burned by the fire, the ashes would contain iron sponge. Like iron from meteorites, iron sponge could be fashioned into shapes. Tools, weapons, and arrow tips could be made by early civilizations.

Iron ore is a mineral that produces iron metal when heated with carbon (also known as a reducing agent). When all of the carbon is removed from the ore to make high-purity iron, this is called wrought iron. Wrought means to shape by hammering or beating, and wrought iron was the first iron to be developed. It has little structural strength and is relatively soft. Ancient metalworkers were also miners and chemists and in time, they realized iron could be made in simple furnaces by heating iron ore with carbon. By 1500 BCE ironmaking was widespread in Egypt. For 3,000 years thereafter ironworking consisted of reducing the iron oxides with carbon, followed by hammering the sponge to make iron products.

The Iron Age can be organized into two parts: Iron I and Iron II. During Iron I (1200–1000 BCE) Bronze Age culture remained intact until the end of the second millennium. The states of Judah and Israel emerged in Iron II (1000–332 BCE) due to the decline of Assyrian and Egyptian power. The Kingdom of Israel was united under King Saul. The capital, Jerusalem, was established by the next ruler, King David. In 950 BCE the people revolted against excessive and indulgent rulers, breaking the kingdom into two parts: The Kingdom of Israel and The Kingdom of Judah. The split left Israel vulnerable to new empires emerging in the east.

Assyria survived the Bronze Age collapse and had mastered the skill of ironworking. The Assyrians used the technology to build with stone: ziggurats and cities modeled after the Sumerians. While skilled in stone architecture, Assyrians were more interested in expansion. Their use of iron meant Assyria had one of the most dangerous fighting forces in the world. Assyrians were known for siege warfare and deportation methods that were brutal yet effective. Conquered peoples would be deported and forced to assimilate into Assyrian culture, while their lands were taken over by Assyrian settlers. In 744 Tiglath-Pilesar III became king. He and his successors laid siege to Israel for decades, completely destroying it, and the people were dispersed, known as the First Israelite Diaspora. Assyria continued its conquest of foreign lands for generations, eventually defeating Egypt (675 BCE).

Although Assyria was skilled at conquest, the empire’s brutal tactics would eventually work against it. When the Babylonians sought to overthrow the Assyrians they found many allies. Nebuchadnezzar II vanquished the Assyrian capital of Nineveh (612 BCE) and subjugated much of the Assyrian Empire, Egypt being the exception. The next empires to rise and conquer were the Persians followed by the Greeks (480 BCE).

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