Israel in the Ancient World

Date: c. 1000 b.c.e.-c. 100 c.e.

Locale: Southeastern end of the Mediterranean

Israel in the Ancient World

Technically, the term “Israel” refers to a state that existed in the southern Levant from about 1000 b.c.e. until about 722 b.c.e. In addition, however, the term is commonly used to refer to the group of people who emerged in the early Iron Age in Canaan and whose descendants made up the political state. Sometimes it is also used to refer to residents of the state of Judah, which was formed at the division of the earlier United Monarchy (c. 1000-922 b.c.e.). Judah existed until 587 or 586 b.c.e., when it was destroyed by the Babylonian Empire. After that time, “Israel” referred to those who traced their ancestry back to the states of Israel or Judah. Some Christian communities have used the term to refer to themselves in a theological sense.

History

Although the Hebrew Bible contains accounts of ancestors of the Israelites such as the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and stories of a miraculous escape from slavery in Egypt, properly speaking “Israel” first emerges on the stage of history with the mention by the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah that he had destroyed “Israel” on a campaign into Canaan in about 1226 b.c.e. Several theories concerning the appearance of Israel in the highlands of Canaan in the early Iron Age have been advanced. Although the biblical record, especially the book of Joshua, claims that the Israelites invaded from outside, the results of archaeological investigation indicate that the culture of “Israel” was closely related to that of the Canaanite population.

Biblical tradition contends that the first king of Israel, Saul, came to power in response to pressure from the Philistines. He was followed by two kings, David and Solomon, who established a centralized state centered in the capital of Jerusalem. Little direct historical evidence for this period exists, although recent discoveries have found slightly later inscriptions that mention “the house (dynasty) of David.”

The primary source for historical information on the monarchical period is the Hebrew Bible, a source composed well after the events it describes. It also relates events through the lens of a particular theological viewpoint. After the death of Solomon brought an end to the United Monarchy, the states of Israel in the north and Judah in the south came into existence. Although they drew on common traditions, these states developed somewhat different political and cultural institutions.

The northern state of Israel tended to be more powerful economically and militarily, partly because it lay astride trade routes connecting the major power centers of the day. At times, Israel was able to play a significant role in the affairs of the region. For example, King Ahab of Israel was part of a coalition that stopped the Assyrian advance to the south at the Battle of Karkar (Qarqar) in 853 b.c.e. Eventually, Israel succumbed to pressure from Assyria and was annexed into the empire in circa 721 b.c.e. Many of its inhabitants were taken into exile (the Ten Lost Tribes), and others managed to flee, some to the sister state of Judah.

Judah occupied a more isolated area and had fewer natural resources. This resulted in a generally weaker position relative to the political powers of the day. Its ruling dynasty, claiming descent from the line of David, provided a more stable, if not always as able, leadership. During the kingship of Hezekiah in 715-701 b.c.e., Judah nearly met the same fate as its northern neighbor after an attempt at independence from the dominant Assyrians. Miraculously, Jerusalem and Hezekiah were able to survive. Jerusalem finally fell to the Babylonians more than a century later in 598 b.c.e. and again in 587 or 586 b.c.e. At this time, the capital and its temple were destroyed, and the state ceased to exist. Many Judahites were exiled into the Babylonian Empire.

The fall of the Babylonians to the Persians under the leadership of Cyrus the Great allowed the return of exiles to Jerusalem circa 538 b.c.e. The difficult economic situation of the returning exiles was exacerbated by the opposition of those in the area who had not been in exile. The community traces its foundation to the work of the priest Ezra and the governor Nehemiah who, with Persian support, were able to reestablish the political stability of the area and also rebuild the temple that had been destroyed.

The Persian Empire was eventually supplanted by that of the Greeks under Alexander the Great and his followers. With the division of Alexander’s empire upon his death, Jerusalem was caught between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires. About 200 b.c.e., the area now called Judaea passed under Seleucid control. Attempts by Antiochus IV Epiphanes to force a common Greek culture on the lands of his realm spawned a revolt (168-143 b.c.e.) led by the Maccabee family, the most famous member of which was Judas. This revolt ended with a measure of success and established the Hasmonean Dynasty (c. 143-37 b.c.e.). Part of this revolt is remembered in the festival of Hanukkah.

Later tensions within the community led to civil conflict in which the Romans intervened in 63 b.c.e. The Romans ruled the area by a variety of methods. Probably the most important client king was Herod the Great. He is especially noted for his building programs. Remains of his rebuilding of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem, his harbor at Caesarea, and many other building projects are still standing.

The tensions evident within the Jewish community under Greek and Roman rule finally broke out in 66 c.e. in a revolt sparked by the Zealots. Rome methodically put down the rebellion, capturing Jerusalem and the temple in 70 c.e. and reducing the last stronghold at Masada in 73 c.e. The urge for independence flared again from 132-135 c.e. under the leadership of Bar Kokhba, who led a disastrous revolt. At this time, Jerusalem was razed and rebuilt as a Roman city. The political state of Israel ceased to exist until modern times.

Economics

The climate of Israel is typical of the Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers and wet winters. The area was more heavily forested in ancient times. The mountainous nature of much of the land encouraged small land holdings with larger fields in the intermountain valleys and in the foothills. The mountainous areas were exploited through the development of terraces, which are still in use. The economy was dominated by dry farming and small animal husbandry. Typical crops included wheat, barley, grapes (wine), and olives (oil).

The basic social and economic unit was the extended family, households consisting of three or four generations. Most of the population lived in rural and village settings. Wealth was primarily held in the form of arable land, which was considered inalienable from the family unit under normal circumstances. The gradual development of an economy based on trade put this traditional system (and the family and clan units on which it was based) under considerable stress, a situation reflected within the prophetic literature of the Hebrew Bible.

Trade was a significant element of the economy, particularly in those areas that were situated along trade routes running between Egypt and Mesopotamia (affecting Israel more than Judah). Trade networks that included alliances with surrounding nations such as the Phoenicians were part of the policy of dynasties such as the Omride Dynasty of Israel. These trade relations were often marked with marriages between royal houses to cement the alliances. The control of trade was probably a more direct source of wealth than exploitation of natural resources. The control of these trade routes was also the goal of the competing superpowers.

Architecture

Construction materials were determined by the nature of the environment, mud-brick being used in the plains and stone in mountainous regions. The most common house form throughout the monarchical period was the “four-room house”—three rooms arranged around a courtyard that functioned as a food preparation area, among other uses. The side rooms most likely extended to a second story.

No remains of the most famous building—the temple that tradition ascribes to King Solomon—have been preserved. The design of this temple with surrounding courtyards seems to have been based on traditions found to the north of Israelite territory. A temple was essentially the “house” of the god. Although in the biblical tradition, this is the only “legitimate” temple, it is clear that other temples existed during the monarchical period.

Religion and ritual

Evidence both from within the Hebrew Bible and from nonbiblical inscriptions indicates that the religion of Israel followed the polytheistic traditions of the previous Canaanite period throughout much of the monarchical period. In the postexilic period, the religion developed a monotheistic belief that came to dominate the practice and sacred writings of the nation. The primary deity worshiped was Yahweh. He seems to have been originally a storm and warrior deity who later assumed the attributes of El, the older Canaanite deity, as the head of the gods and a creator.

Ritual practices included animal sacrifices at a temple, at least until the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem in 70 c.e. The yearly calendar revolved around the agricultural year with festivals marking the primary harvests. Rituals in the temples were carried out by hereditary priests. Other rituals were centered in the home.

Another important religious figure in the culture was the prophet. The prophet acted as a messenger of God, announcing the will of the deity to the king and the people. At times, prophets were closely associated with the power structures of the day. They also acted as a check on the uncontrolled use of power by kings. Throughout the biblical period, the ethic of the community emphasized care for the rights and well-being of “the poor, the widow, and the orphan.” This was a primary responsibility of the king during the monarchial period. In the postexilic period, many of the functions of the king were taken over by the High Priest.

Especially in the exilic period, various rituals came to mark the identity of those considering themselves to be Jews. These rituals included observance of the Sabbath, the practice of circumcision, and the observance of laws concerning purity, especially concerning aspects of diet. These practices became codified after the first century c.e. with the work of rabbis now found in the Talmud.

Calendars and chronology

The “day” began at sunset. For example, the Sabbath day of rest lasted from Friday evening until Saturday evening. Months were calculated in relation to the cycles of the Moon. The annual calendar as exemplified in the inscription of the Gezer calendar was based on the agricultural cycle. The new year probably began in the fall of the year, although there may have been a change to spring dating during the exile. Official dating related to the years of reign of a particular king.

Death and burial

Reflecting the importance of the extended family within the social structure, the predominant method of burial was in “family” tombs, often cut into the rock. A strong tradition within the culture saw death in old age as the natural end of life, but premature death was to be mourned. Not until late in the period and with the increasing importance of the individual did belief in life after death develop. This superseded the conception of the underworld (Sheol) as a shadowy, gravelike minimal existence.

Writing systems

Relatively little written material survives from Israel in this period. Literacy was confined primarily to the elite, a fact that must be considered when evaluating surviving written evidence. Although some ostraca (fragments of pottery and the like containing inscriptions) survive from the monarchical period, monumental inscriptions are not known. The presence of bullae, clay impressed with the seal of an official, indicates that most records were written on papyrus, which has not survived. The major preserved written material is found in the Hebrew Bible.

Language and literature

During the monarchical period, the common language was a dialect of Hebrew (differing slightly in Israel and Judah). After the exile, a shift occurred to Aramaic as the most widely spoken language. During and after the Hellenistic period, many people also spoke Greek. This led to the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, a version known as the Septuagint.

The Hebrew Bible is a collection of a variety of books composed over a long period of time, taking its final form only in the last centuries before the common era. The first five books (or Torah) are traditionally designated the Five Books of Moses, although this is a rather late designation. Scholars believe these to have been written by several authors over a period from the United Monarchy until a final edition in the exilic or postexilic period. These books relate traditions ranging from the beginning of the world to the period shortly before entry into the land of Canaan. Traditions of the historical development of the monarchy are related in the books of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings. These books are composed by a group of authors designated by scholars as the Deuteronomists (because they are also primarily responsible for the book of Deuteronomy in the Torah). The viewpoint of these authors (a stress on moral behavior, the special election of the people by their god, the gift by Yahweh of the land, the worship of Yahweh only and centralization of that worship at the temple in Jerusalem) came to dominate the literature of the entire Bible, although it seems that this group was a minority viewpoint until the exile. It was this same group that began the collection of prophetic writings that were consistent with their viewpoints. This collection eventually came to include writings attributed to Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel and twelve smaller prophetic collections.

Other writings in the Hebrew Bible include a collection of hymns related to worship (Psalms), philosophical ruminations (Job, Proverbs, Koheleth), a collection of love poetry (Song of Songs), and later historical writing (1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Another body of literature that may be found in the Apocrypha of some Bibles was produced in the last centuries before the common era.

One of the most important bodies of writings discovered is designated the Dead Sea Scrolls. These documents, discovered in the 1940’s and 1950’s, include the oldest substantial copies of the books of the Hebrew Bible and sectarian documents related to a group within the Jewish community known as the Essenes. These documents provide a valuable insight into the culture just before the revolts against Rome.

Education and training

Although there undoubtedly were means of education and training, particularly for those in government service, there is little evidence for schools during most of this period. The common means of training seems to have been apprenticeship, sons often following in the occupation of their fathers.

Women’s life

The written materials that are available to study the role of women in the society are typically quite androcentric. This makes any complex analysis difficult. Archaeological and anthropological studies have begun to illuminate the role of gender within this society. Individual women at times became prominent on the historical scene and in the literature, but these examples tend to be noteworthy precisely because they are exceptional.

Bibliography

Ahlström, Gösta. The History of Ancient Palestine from the Paleolithic to Alexander’s Conquest. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1993.

Davies, W. D., and Louis Finkelstein, eds. The Cambridge History of Judaism. 2 vols. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East 31 b.c.-a.d. 337. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.

Perdue, Leo G., Joseph Blenkinsopp, John J. Collins, and Carol Meyers. Families in Ancient Israel. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997.