Italian campaign of WWII
The Italian Campaign of World War II was a significant military effort by the Allied forces aimed at weakening Axis powers by capturing strategic positions in Italy. Following the defeat of Axis forces in North Africa in 1943, the Allies launched an invasion of Sicily in July, which was crucial for the eventual invasion of the Italian mainland. The campaign began in earnest with Allied landings in Italy in September 1943, facing fierce German resistance, particularly as they fortified positions along the Apennine Mountains.
Despite early successes, including the capture of Rome in June 1944, the campaign was marked by slow advances and high casualties, totaling over 300,000 for both sides. Key battles included the protracted struggle at Monte Cassino and the attempts to breach the heavily defended Gustav Line. While the campaign ultimately led to the unconditional surrender of German forces in Italy by May 1945, its necessity remains debated among historians, with some viewing it as a diversion from other more critical fronts. The Italian Campaign was pivotal in shaping the dynamics of the war in Europe and significantly affected the post-war landscape of the region.
Italian campaign of WWII
The Event Allied military offensive against Axis forces in Italy during World War II
Date July 10, 1943-May 2, 1945
Places Sicily and Italy
The Italian campaign saw the most drawn-out and bloody fighting of World War II in Western Europe. The Allied invasion of Italy was intended to strike the Axis Powers at a vulnerable point and divert German troops from other fronts. Allied forces then became embroiled in a grueling struggle for control of the Italian peninsula.
The defeat of Axis forces in North Africa in 1943 spurred the Western Allies to assess their strategy. American military planners regarded the campaign in the Mediterranean as a sideshow and were anxious to build up forces in Britain for the cross-channel invasion of France. The British wanted to follow up success in the Mediterranean, moving against what Prime MinisterWinston Churchill called the “soft underbelly” of Europe. The Allies ultimately agreed on an invasion of France in 1944. In the meantime, operations would continue in the Mediterranean.
Sicilian Prelude
Allied planners decided to strike at Sicily. The island was garrisoned by unreliable Italian troops and two refitting German divisions. Overall command of the invasion of Sicily was given to American general Dwight D. Eisenhower. Operational command went to British general Harold Alexander.
The Allied landings in Sicily began on July 10, 1943. The seven-division landing force was larger than that which would land at Normandy. British generalBernard Montgomery’s Eighth Army landed near Syracuse and began driving north toward Messina. American general George S. Patton’s Seventh Army was landed on the south coast and protected Montgomery’s left flank. Italian opposition was weak, but the Germans fought back fiercely. Montgomery was held up by German defenses around Mount Etna. Patton took advantage of weaker opposition to drive north to Palermo, and then east to Messina, arriving shortly before Montgomery’s advance guard on August 17.
The Allies conquered Sicily, but the Germans successfully evacuated all their forces across the Straits of Messina. Though militarily incomplete, victory in Sicily had important consequences. The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was overthrown in a coup supported by King Victor Emmanuel III. Marshal Pietro Badoglio became the new head of the Italian government and began negotiating surrender with the Allies. The Germans responded to Mussolini’s fall by moving more troops into Italy. On September 12, German commandos rescued Mussolini from imprisonment.
War in Italy
Success in Sicily persuaded the Allies to attack the Italian mainland. Montgomery’s Eighth Army crossed to the toe of Italy on September 3 and began a slow advance to the north. On September 9, American general Mark Clark’s Fifth Army went ashore at the Gulf of Salerno, south of Naples. The German field marshal Albert Kesselring believed that the Allies could be held south of Rome, and counterattacked at Salerno with the limited forces that he had available. The Fifth Army was hard pressed, and only the firepower provided by waves of bombers and naval gunfire saved the beachhead. The Eighth Army finally linked up with the Fifth Army on September 16, forcing a German retreat. Kesselring’s forces fell back slowly, skillfully making the most of defensive positions sited in the Apennine Mountains, which run like a spine up central Italy. The advance north proved painfully slow and costly, as the Allied troops battled their way through the mountains. By January 1, 1944, the Allied offensive had stalled in front of Kesselring’s fortified Gustav Line, almost one hundred miles south of Rome.
By this time, Eisenhower and Montgomery had transferred to Britain to plan the Normandy invasion. General Alexander commanded the Allied forces in Italy. When frontal assaults on the Gustav Line failed, Alexander tried an end run. On January 22, he boldly landed the U.S. VI Corps behind the Gustav Line at Anzio, thirty-three miles south of Rome. Alexander hoped that this force would rapidly strike at the German lines of communication. General Clark ordered the commander at Anzio to consolidate his beachhead before advancing. This gave Kesselring time to concentrate forces to meet this threat. Within a week, the VI Corps was besieged and fighting for its survival. The Germans stationed at the Gustav Line did not budge. Alexander was forced to hammer away at the German defenses. Much of the fighting centered on the ancient monastery of Monte Cassino, which became a bitter symbol to the attacking Allied troops. The Allies did not pierce the Gustav Line until May, with Monte Cassino falling on the 18th of that month.
The Allies now had a chance to destroy the retreating Germans. The American troops at Anzio launched an attack that threatened to cut the German escape route. Clark, anxious to liberate Rome, ordered these forces to change the direction of their attack. Clark entered Rome on June 4, but the Germans escaped, and settled into the Gothic Line, 150 miles to the north. Italy was now a secondary theater, and Alexander lost seven divisions, which were sent to invade southern France. Alexander wanted to continue the offensive into northern Italy and then press through the Alps into Austria. Allied forces penetrated the Gothic Line in September. The Germans continued to resist fiercely, taking advantage of the rugged terrain. Alexander called off offensive operations in December, with his troops still south of Bologna.
The Allied armies, now under the command of General Clark, attacked again in April, 1945, making the most of an advantage in numbers and equipment. The Germans were overwhelmed. Cut off while retreating, the German forces surrendered unconditionally on May 2.
Impact
The Italian campaign cost both sides more than 300,000 casualties, and it remains controversial. Some historians believe that the campaign used up German troops needed elsewhere. Others argue that the occupation of Sicily and southern Italy alone would have compelled the Germans to retain large forces near the Alps, and that the costly and destructive Italian campaign was unnecessary.
Bibliography
Atkinson, Rick. Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy. New York: Henry Holt, 2007. Superbly written narrative by a Pulitzer Prize-winning historian.
Botjer, George. Sideshow War: The Italian Campaign, 1943-1945. College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1996. Scholarly and balanced account of the campaign.
Graham, Dominick, and Shelford Bidwell. Tug of War: The Battle for Italy, 1943-1945. Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword, 2004. Reprint of a respected study, paying special attention to Allied generalship.
Lamb, Richard. War in Italy, 1943-1945: A Brutal Story. New York: Da Capo Press, 1996. Reprint of a highly regarded history that highlights Italian suffering during the war.