Louis XVI

King of France (r. 1774-1792)

• Born: August 23, 1754
• Birthplace: Versailles, France
• Died: January 21, 1793
• Place of death: Paris, France

Louis XVI’s encouragement of limited reforms did not prevent the outbreak of the French Revolution. As the revolution became increasingly radical, he demonstrated flexibility in surrendering many of the traditional prerogatives of the French monarchy, but his attempted escape and antirevolutionary attitudes eventually led to his trial, condemnation, and execution.

Early Life

Born Louis-Auguste in 1754, Louis (lwee) XVI was the grandson of King Louis XV and the third son of the dauphin Louis-Ferdinand and Marie-Joséphe of Saxony. Following the deaths of his two elder brothers and then his father in 1765, Louis-Auguste became the dauphin, or successor to the king. At the age of sixteen, he married Marie-Antoinette, a member of the Austrian Habsburg family. Because of a physical problem, the marriage was not consummated until he had surgery several years later. Their first child, a daughter, was born in 1778, and they eventually would have four children. Louis’s love and affection for his wife continued to grow, and in contrast to many monarchs of the period, he never had a mistress.

As a student, Louis-Auguste demonstrated above-average intelligence, and he took a great deal of interest in the subjects of science, geography, and history. At an early age, he became strongly committed to orthodox Catholicism, a belief system he retained throughout his life. His surviving journal records his traditional training in the theory and responsibility of kingship. Naturally timid, he tended to keep his opinions to himself. Beginning in 1766, he kept a diary (actually a combination of engagement diary and hunting record), which gives the impression (probably misleading) of a dull mind and superficial understanding.

In contrast to his father, Louis-Auguste enjoyed a close and friendly relationship with Louis XV, who gave him much advice and allowed him to attend important governmental functions. He inherited the throne after his grandfather died of smallpox on May 10, 1774, and he was formally crowned in a ceremony on June 11, 1775.

Life’s Work

Because his grandfather was almost universally despised, Louis XVI at first was beloved by the people. It soon became apparent, however, that he did not have the personality or strength of will to deal with the antagonistic factions in his court. Although his actions indicated a willingness to undertake moderate political and economic reforms, he lacked the decisiveness and vision needed to deal with the serious problems that he inherited, problems that continued to worsen into the 1780’s.

Following a bitter conflict with the parlements (powerful courts that registered edicts), Louis XV’s chancellor had dissolved the parlements and exiled the judges, which greatly angered most of the nobility. Upon his ascension, Louis XVI dismissed the chancellor and restored the parlements. His most pressing problem was the government’s debt. From 1774 to 1776, his first controller-general of finance, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, tried to deal with the problem by reducing spending and restoring free circulation of grain. After a series of bread riots, the next director of finances, Jacques Necker, regulated grain prices and relied on high-interest loans. The financial situation worsened as the government borrowed large sums to support the cause of American independence.

In 1781, Louis appointed a new controller-general, Charles de Calonne, who proposed several reforms, including a direct land tax and a reduction of the privileges of the nobles. To gain support, Calonne convinced Louis to call an Assembly of Notables, but the assembly rejected the proposed reforms in 1787. After the Parlement of Paris refused to register a land tax the next year, Louis agreed to order elections for a meeting of the Estates-General, a representative assembly of three classes: nobles, clergy, and commoners. He also recalled Necker, whose policies had been quite popular.

When the Estates-General met on May 5, 1789, the commoners, or Third Estate, demanded that the three orders meet together and vote individually. As Louis, indecisive as usual, wavered, the deputies of the Third Estate proclaimed themselves the national assembly on June 17. When Louis appeared ready to oppose their initiatives, they took the Tennis Court Oath, pledging not to adjourn without a constitution. On June 27, the king yielded to the demands of the Third Estate. At the same time, he dismissed Necker. Less than a month later, the Bastille prison-fortress was stormed by Parisian militants. As violence spread, Louis meekly agreed to a reduction of his powers.

On October 5, 1789, a Parisian crowd, aroused by inflationary food costs, forced Louis and his family to move from Versailles to Paris. Held under close supervision, Louis was forced to approve policies he disliked, such as the assembly’s anti-Catholic program. In this difficult situation, there is evidence that Louis was suffering from clinical depression, which increased his indecisiveness and dependency on an unpopular queen with poor political judgment.

Louis and the queen attempted a dramatic escape on June 20-21, 1791. Although historians debate Louis’s exact intentions, he apparently hoped to join the foreign and domestic enemies of the revolution. He left behind a declaration denouncing the persecution of the Church and complaining that his reduced powers made it impossible to govern. Captured at Varennes, the royal family was brought back in great humiliation. In September, Louis had no choice but to approve the new constitution, which established a constitutional monarchy.

With the radical insurrection of October 10, 1792, the royal family became prisoners in the Temple. Under pressure from the Parisian radicals, the assembly suspended Louis and called for elections to a national convention, which met on September 21. The convention, dominated by revolutionaries, quickly abolished the monarchy and established a republic. After incriminating documents involving Louis were discovered, the convention began his trial on December 11. Although Louis was allowed a lawyer, a majority of representatives had already decided that he was guilty of high treason. After a one-vote majority of delegates approved the death penalty, the delegates, by a 380-310 margin, rejected a reprieve on January 20, and the date for the execution was set for the next day. He maintained his dignity as he walked to the guillotine before a cheering crowd.

Significance

Louis XVI was lacking in charisma, physically unattractive, taciturn, often indecisive, and sometimes seriously depressed—yet he had a number of good qualities. He was hardworking and moderately intelligent, and in contrast to his reactionary brothers, he was willing to make substantial compromises and abandon many of the powers of the absolute monarchy. He gave every indication of desiring reforms designed to bring about greater equality in tax obligations and social status. It is questionable whether another monarch, even if dynamic and decisive, would have more successfully met the great challenges posed by the social and economic tensions of his reign.

Perhaps Louis would have survived if he had not tried to flee from Paris in 1792. It would certainly have been in his interests to give more unqualified support (even if only lip service) to the notion of a constitutional monarchy and to keep a greater distance from conservative individuals who were committed to opposing the revolution. It is unrealistic, however, to expect that he could completely transcend his perceived interests and cultural education.

The execution of Louis XVI was one of the most dramatic moments of the French Revolution. To conservatives, the event became a negative symbol of the dangers of excessive democracy and disorder. To persons of the radical left, the execution became a positive symbol of the need to overthrow and punish oppressors of the people. For liberals and moderates, his execution has often been a symbol of the consequences of failure to make gradual reforms in political and social institutions.

Bibliography

Cronin, Vincent. Louis and Antoinette. New York: William Morrow, 1975. Emphasizes the personal lives and personalities of the king and queen.

Fäy, Bernard. Louis XVI: Or, The End of a World. Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1968. Although dated, this work is a good historical biography that emphasizes the events and ideas of the revolution.

Hardman, John. Louis XVI: The Silent King. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Compact but richly detailed political biography that gives a somewhat favorable view of Louis and minimizes his opposition to constitutional reforms. Highly recommended even if difficult reading in places.

Jordan, David. The King’s Trial: The French Revolution vs. Louis XVI. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. A detailed account of the legal issues, procedures, and events of the trial and verdict.

Maceron, Claude. Twilight of the Old Order, 1774-1778. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977. A detailed account of the fiscal problems and policies during Louis XVI’s early reign.

Mansel, Philip. The Court of France, 1789-1830. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. A scholarly account of policies, institutions, and leaders of French governments, including Louis XVI’s last three years.

Padover, Saul. The Life and Death of Louis XVI. New York: Taplinger, 1963. The first notable English-language biography, which is readable and useful, even though it is considered less scholarly than more recent works by Hardman and others.

Price, Munro. The Road from Versailles: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the Fall of the French Monarchy. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003. Concentrating on the diplomacy and correspondence of the Baron de Breteuil, Price argues, in contrast to Hardman, that Louis refused to compromise with the legislature and fled Paris in hopes of restoring the absolute monarchy.

Stone, Bailey. The Parlement of Paris, 1774-89. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981. A scholarly study of the conflicts between Louis and the High Court of Paris when the royal government attempted to enact reforms in taxation.

Walzer, Michael, ed. Regicide and Revolution: Speeches at the Trial of Louis XVI. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974. A dozen speeches from the trial as well as a stimulating introduction.