Mandate of Heaven

The Mandate of Heaven was an ancient Chinese political and philosophical concept in which the emperor was granted the right to rule by the divine power of Heaven. The idea, known in Chinese as Tianming, was first instituted during the Zhou dynasty about 1046 BCE and was drawn from the belief that the emperor was the Son of Heaven. According to the mandate, the emperor was given the power to rule solely by the will of Heaven. In return, the emperor was expected to use that power to govern in a wise and just manner. Natural disasters such as earthquakes were seen as signs an emperor had abused that right and had lost the mandate to rule. Without divine approval, such an unjust emperor could be overthrown and replaced with a new ruler.

Background

According to legend, the first true ruler of what would become China was a figure known as the Yellow Emperor, or Huangdi. Although likely just a myth, the Yellow Emperor was said to have founded the Chinese civilization and was later revered as a deity. Legend states he was succeeded by a series of emperors who eventually founded the Xia dynasty about 2070 BCE. For many years, archaeologists believed the Xia dynasty was also nothing more than a myth, but modern discoveries have suggested it may have actually existed. The first confirmed Chinese dynasty was the Shang, which was founded about 1600 BCE, a time that coincides with the invention of written records in China.

The Shang dynasty ruled from about 1600–1046 BCE. The dynasty was known for introducing mathematics, astronomy, a calendar, and bronze tools and weapons to China. The Shang believed in a spiritual figure known as Shangdi, a divine being similar to a celestial lord or supreme ancestor. Shangdi was a distant god who was not often involved directly in everyday earthly matters. The Chinese believed that the spirits of their deceased ancestors acted as intermediaries with Shangdi, and by asking for their aid, they could have their wishes heard by the celestial lord. After the Zhou dynasty succeeded the Shang in 1046 BCE, the figure of Shangdi was replaced with the concept of Tian, or “Heaven,” a divine order that governed the universe.

Overview

The Zhou were a people who got their name from their homeland on the Plain of Zhou in north-central China. About 1099 BCE, the Zhou were ruled by a kind and just king named Wen, who was the first Zhou leader to claim divine favor and call himself the Son of Heaven. During the rule of Wen’s son, King Yu, the Shang dynasty became riddled with corruption. Its emperor, Xin, was said to have forgotten the needs of the people and lived a life of luxury and self-indulgence. In 1046 BCE, Yu led a Zhou army of about 50,000 troops against a much-larger Shang force at the Battle of Muye. Shang soldiers were said to be so unhappy with their emperor that many stood aside or joined the Zhou army. With his army defeated, Xin fled back to his palace and committed suicide, bringing an end to the Shang dynasty.

Yu became emperor and established the Zhou dynasty. Building upon his father’s well-known reputation as a good king, Yu declared that his victory at Muye and ascension to emperor came as a result of him being divinely favored by Heaven. Under this Mandate of Heaven, Xin and the Shang had lost the right to rule because of their corrupt and oppressive actions. Yu’s victory was a clear sign that he was a virtuous and noble king and that Heaven had blessed him and given him the right to rule. He established the precedent that China’s emperors were not all powerful, but were answerable to a higher power. The emperor was considered part of the universal order, and if he violated this order, the people would face the consequences.

Because the emperor was considered the Son of Heaven, he was expected to act as the bridge between the earthly world and the divine realm. It was believed that any improper actions by the emperor would bring the wrath of Heaven down upon his kingdom. Therefore, Zhou emperors had a responsibility to exhibit the qualities of yi, or “righteousness,” and ren, “benevolence.” In the fourth century BCE, Chinese philosopher Mencius described this ideal by stating “Heaven does not create people for the sake of the sovereign. Heaven made the sovereign for the sake of the people.”

Events such as earthquakes, floods, or crop failures were seen as a sign that Heaven was angry with the emperor and believed he had failed his duty of upholding the cosmic order. If the emperor was overthrown or the kingdom conquered by an invading army, that was considered a sign the emperor had lost the Mandate of Heaven. The new emperor or conquering ruler was seen as having gained Heaven’s blessing and the right to rule. Conversely, if an emperor followed Heaven’s path and was a good ruler, he had a divine right to conquer rival kingdoms. Successful conquests were seen as a sign the emperor had earned Heaven’s favor.

The Zhou dynasty lasted from 1046–256 BCE, the longest reign of any of Chinese dynasty. However, for the last few centuries of its existence, the dynasty was torn apart by civil war. In 221 BCE, Zheng, leader of the Qin state, emerged as the victor from this period of upheaval and united China under his rule. He took the title of Qin Shi Huang and founded the Qin dynasty. Shi Huang believed Heaven had granted him his rule because of his military might and dismissed the idea he was supposed to follow a moral path. He was an oppressive ruler, as was his son who took over after Shi Huang’s death in 210 BCE. Although considered the dynasty that founded modern China, the Qin was also the shortest in its history, with Shi Huang’s son being overthrown in 206 BCE.

Future Chinese emperors continued to use the concept of the Mandate of Heaven as justification for their rule, although its philosophical context changed over time. Some emperors believed as did Shi Huang that Heaven had granted them military superiority over their kingdom. Others argued that their right to rule did not come from divine authority, but was a part of natural law. At times, even foreign invaders invoked the mandate as justification for their conquest of China. The mandate survived in some form up until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, after which China became a republic.

Bibliography

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