Mannerism (art)
Mannerism is an artistic movement that emerged in Europe during the sixteenth century, primarily between 1520 and 1600, following the High Renaissance. While it is most closely associated with the cultural hubs of Rome and Florence, its influence extended to northern and central Europe as well. The term "mannerism" derives from the Italian word "maniera," meaning style or manner, and was popularized by the art scholar Giorgio Vasari. Mannerist art is characterized by a departure from the idealized forms and balanced compositions of the High Renaissance, embracing instead more complex and often distorted figures, unconventional color palettes, and a lack of clear focal points. This shift reflected the tumultuous political, religious, and social changes of the time, including the upheavals following the deaths of key Renaissance figures such as Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. Notable mannerist artists include Titian, Agnolo Bronzino, and El Greco. While mannerism eventually gave way to the Baroque style in the seventeenth century, it served as a pivotal bridge between the structured beauty of the Renaissance and the more emotive expressions of Baroque art.
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Mannerism (art)
Mannerism is a sixteenth-century artistic movement that developed in the wake of the Renaissance era. Works of mannerist art are generally defined as any piece of European artwork created between 1520 and 1600. A related style known as northern mannerism lasted until the early seventeen century in some regions of Europe. The term mannerist is generally used to refer to visual arts—such as paintings, sculpture, and architecture—from this era. However, the same underlying aesthetics that gave rise to mannerist art also influenced other artistic avenues, such as literature and music, and are included as part of the movement under some broader definitions of the term.
Mannerist works are less defined by a shared set of thematic or stylistic characteristics than a common aesthetic response to the era in which they were created. Works collectively referred to as mannerist include a wide cross-section of artistic styles. The term was coined to define an era of art that represents a bridge between the vastly different Renaissance and Baroque eras of art.
Brief History
Mannerism is most intimately associated with the cities of Rome and Florence, which were two of the cultural centers of late Renaissance Europe. The word mannerism is borrowed from the Italian word maniera, meaning "style" or "manner." The word maniera was first used in the sixteenth century by Florentine art scholar Giorgio Vasari in The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (1550; republished in extended form in 1568), one of the first books devoted to art history. Vasari described the maniera movement as being a natural evolution of the two prior centuries of Renaissance art. According to Vasari, art was meant to be defined by how it demonstrated the natural skill of an artist rather than by its technical adherence to a specific school or movement. To that end, Vasari believed that art must not be limited by the constraints of a defined style. Instead, it should simply be a natural presentation of grace and fluidity. While Vasari was advocating for a freer interpretation of art, his emphasis on effortless beauty itself was a reflection of artistic mores shared by many of the artists of the era.
Mannerism is often regarded as a response to the High Renaissance style of art and the political and religious turmoil that followed. High Renaissance art (c. 1490–1520) is characterized by its beauty and balance. The High Renaissance marked the culmination of two hundred years of artistic development dating back to medieval Europe. Some of the artists regarded as among the greatest masters of all time—including Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Raphael—were active during this era. The art of the High Renaissance is held in great esteem by many art critics who regard this period as one of the golden ages of European cultural history.
Da Vinci died in 1519, while Raphael passed away in 1520. Although Michelangelo survived until 1564, he was preoccupied with only a small number of projects of massive scale that required his full effort. As a result, the deaths of his fellow High Renaissance masters are generally used to mark the beginning of the mannerist era. Their deaths signaled the end of an artistic era known for its idealistic and natural presentation of its subject matter. While the High Renaissance reflected the pinnacle of this type of expression, for many artists of the mannerist school, it equally represented a highly restrictive artistic ideology.
The world was at the dawn of a period of great change at the end of the fifteenth century. Christopher Columbus's exploration of the New World in 1492 and Magellan's circumnavigation of Earth in 1522 altered the understanding of the world. In 1512, Copernicus first postulated that Earth was not at the center of the universe. By 1517, Martin Luther had first presented his challenge to the Catholic Church. Even beyond these cultural and religious earthquakes, the beginning of the sixteenth century also marked a major shift in geopolitical foundations of Europe. Perhaps most influential to the mannerist movement was the growing power of Charles V. By inheritance alone, Charles V controlled vast areas of Europe, including Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and the Italian kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. Charles's attempts to dominate Europe were opposed by the kings of England and France, as well the Roman popes.
In the decade following the deaths of da Vinci and Raphael, Rome and Florence came under attack by Charles V, ending with a devastating sacking of Rome in 1527. This event forced the Roman popes, who had been the primary patrons of the High Renaissance masters, to flee the city. In the wake of this civil distress, artists rejected the orderliness of High Renaissance art in favor of less structured aesthetics. By the mid-sixteenth century, mannerism had spread to northern and then central Europe where it remained comparatively vibrant, even after the Baroque style surpassed mannerism in popularity in Italy. By the seventeenth century, mannerism had largely disappeared from the artistic landscape in favor of the more dramatic Baroque aesthetic.
Overview
Renaissance works were focused on offering a realistic presentation of subject matter. Renaissance paintings, sculpture, and architecture relied on strict linear perspectives combined with natural colors and dramatic postures. Mannerist art still utilized some of these conventions, although artists increasingly experimented with more abstract imagery and artificiality. While mannerism reflected a broad expression of artistic sensibilities, certain characteristics have become associated with the movement.
Mannerism works often have no single focal point. Instead, human figures are frequently distorted and elongated, with their bodies twisted into unnatural, complex poses. Limbs may be extended and misshapen, while heads are small and oval. Some artists used a jarring palate of mismatched colors, a feature that was particularly in contrast with the natural and complementary shades used during the High Renaissance. These elements may have been a function of the desire of mannerist artists to seek out or reflect the instability of the period. However, like Renaissance artists, the mannerists regularly included allegorical imagery in their works. Among the best known artists from this school are Titian, Agnolo Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, and El Greco.
The mannerists' increasing exploration of irregular postures and colors served as an evolutionary byway to the exaggerated aesthetics of the Baroque era of European art. Baroque works demonstrated greater latitude and interest in lighting and shade, backgrounds, and emotionally evocative posturing. In a sense, mannerism freed artists from the romanticism of the High Renaissance, allowing them to explore the more emotionally charged style that came to define the Baroque period.
Bibliography
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Kleiner, Fred S. "High Renaissance and Mannerism in Northern Europe and Spain." Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Global History. 14th ed., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2013, pp. 644–65.
"Mannerism." National Gallery of Art, www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/features/slideshows/mannerism.html. Accessed 1 May 2017.
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"Style Guide: Mannerism." Victoria and Albert Museum, www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/s/style-guide-mannerism/. Accessed 1 May 2017.
Walek, Janusz. "Between the Ideal and the Reality: The Human Body through the Eyes of European Artists." Argument, vol. 2015, no. 1, 2015, pp. 87–98, www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=414494. Accessed 1 May 2017.