Meiji Constitution
The Meiji Constitution, officially known as the Constitution of the Empire of Japan, was enacted on November 29, 1890, and served as Japan's governing document until May 2, 1947. Created during the Meiji Restoration, it marked a significant shift from a feudal system to a constitutional monarchy, centralizing power under the emperor while introducing a parliamentary structure with a bicameral legislature known as the Diet. Drafted primarily by statesman Itō Hirobumi, the constitution was inspired by various Western models, particularly the German system, and aimed to modernize Japan's governance to enhance its international standing.
The Meiji Constitution established a framework that defined the roles and responsibilities of the emperor, the Diet, and the judiciary, allowing for a balance of power. While the emperor retained control over the military and foreign policy, the Diet was empowered to address domestic issues, reflecting a unique blend of traditional Japanese authority and modern governance principles. Initially, citizens had limited rights, but over time, they gained more political participation, including voting rights.
This constitutional framework facilitated Japan's rapid modernization, enabling it to strengthen its military and economy, ultimately positioning the nation as a formidable global power by the early 20th century. However, following Japan's defeat in World War II, the Meiji Constitution was replaced by a new democratic constitution, marking the end of the imperial era and the beginning of a new political chapter in Japanese history.
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Meiji Constitution
The Meiji Constitution, also known as the Constitution of the Empire of Japan, was a government document that was in effect from November 29, 1890, until May 2, 1947. This document transformed the Japanese government from an isolated feudal system overseen by lords and generals into a modernized international power with a strong centralized government overseen by the emperor. Written largely by statesman Itō Hirobumi, the document was named after Emperor Meiji. The Meiji Constitution was the main outline for Japanese government until 1947, when it was replaced by a more democratic constitution following Japan's defeat in World War II.
Background
Before the adoption of the Meiji Constitution, Japan did not have a unified set of written laws that applied to the country as a whole. During the sixth century, most Japanese leaders adopted an unwritten body of rules called ritsuryō, which were inspired by Chinese political ideals. Ritsuryō was based on meritocracy, meaning that power was distributed to the most qualified citizens. However, the emperor was still at the top of the hierarchy and had the final say. This principle was consistent with Japanese beliefs during this time, which held that the emperor, who also served as head of the powerful Shinto religion, was a descendent of the gods and, therefore, a sacred being.
Although the principles of ritsuryō persevered for centuries, their influence waned over time. By the tenth century, powerful feudal lords and military dictators known as shoguns slowly usurped the powers of the emperor. The emperor—still considered godlike but holding very little actual power—took on a largely symbolic role in government. This departure from ancient tradition and the reduction of centralized power weakened Japan. Throughout the feudal period and into the 1800s, Japan fell behind the other great industrial powers of the world, such as Great Britain, Germany, France, and, later, the United States.
Many Japanese leaders and citizens questioned the path their government was taking as they became aware of the great strides foreign nations were making in trade, economics, and science while Japan remained relatively primitive. In addition, some of the trade policies and international laws of the Western powers suggested that they considered Japan a second-rate country. Many citizens debated the possibility of a written constitution, which was a controversial proposal at the time. The first step in this direction came with the restoration of political power to the emperor. After the last shogun resigned in 1867, the reigning emperor, known as Meiji, assumed political power in 1868 in an event known as the Meiji Restoration.
Emperor Meiji had high ambitions for himself and Japan. He wanted to consolidate his own power and that of his top advisors while simultaneously establishing Japan as one of the great nations of the world. To do so, he would devise a constitution that would create an efficient and powerful government. In preparation for this, Meiji empowered statesman Itō Hirobumi in 1882 to study world constitutions to find a suitable model. Hirobumi reviewed and rejected the constitutions of the United States, France, and Spain. The British system was somewhat closer to the Japanese goal, but the true model for the Meiji Constitution was the system used in Germany and Prussia. Using this model, Hirobumi and others began drafting Japan's first constitution.
Overview
Hirobumi and other political leaders made several drafts of the constitution before presenting it to Emperor Meiji in 1888. The document met with the emperor's approval, and he officially endorsed it the following year. The Meiji Constitution, formally known as the Constitution of the Empire of Japan, went into effect on November 29, 1890. It consisted of seven chapters that defined the powers and the responsibilities of the emperor, his subjects, the imperial Diet (a bicameral parliament), the ministers of state and Privy Council members, and the judicature. It also outlined finance regulations and supplementary rules.
The Meiji Constitution established a constitutional monarchy in which the emperor shared power with the parliament, or Diet—thus creating the first parliamentary government in Asia. It also established a three-branch government, consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The emperor derived his power from the belief that he was descended from gods, and his power would be passed down through his descendants. The Diet consisted of two houses: a lower house whose members were chosen by election and an upper house consisting of a prime minster and cabinet appointed by the emperor. Hirobumi became the first prime minister.
The Diet generally dealt more with domestic policy, and the emperor handled foreign policy matters. The emperor reserved complete control over the country's armed forces, but the Diet was also able to check the power of the emperor. In addition, a Privy Council of elder statesmen served to assist and advise the emperor. Meanwhile, an independent judiciary branch of government was empowered to protect the civil rights of citizens. Yet, this undertaking was mired by unclear rules, strict laws, and differing interpretations.
The government's balances as well as its limitations underscored an essential question—whether to grant the most power to the rulers or to the people. At first, the rulers had a clear advantage, though citizens were granted limited rights regarding movement, correspondence, assembly, religion, jury trials, and private property. Over time, citizens gained more rights, including widespread voting power that helped them participate in government.
The Meiji Constitution not only restructured, but also revitalized Japan in a very short period. In the coming decades, Japan developed a strong centralized government, improved education, ended feudalism, increased industry, and built a strong army and navy. The latter was useful in two successful wars, including a victorious effort against Russia, which further helped to establish Japan as a world-class power. By adopting some aspects of Western government, Japan had effectively catapulted itself into a position of great international influence in the span of a generation.
Emperor Meiji died in 1912, but the ideology he had fostered lived on through the 1920s and 1930s. By the 1940s, Japan was powerful enough to carry out its own imperialistic ambitions and become an influential ally to Germany in World War II. However, after a losing effort in that conflict, Japan found itself defeated and occupied by the war's victors, primarily the United States. In May of 1947, Japan officially dissolved its empire and replaced the Meiji Constitution with a more democratic constitution, as approved by the United States.
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