Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb

Saudi theologian and legal scholar

• Born: 1703
• Birthplace: 'Uyaynah, Najd (now in Saudi Arabia)
• Died: 1792
• Place of death: Ad-Dir'īyah, Najd (now in Saudi Arabia)

Al-Wahhāb founded a reform movement that called for a return to the fundamental sources of Islam, the Qur՚ān and the Ḥadīth. In 1744, he formed an administrative partnership with the Saudi ruler Muḥammad ibn Saՙūd. Their pact resulted in the establishment of the Saudi state and remains the basis of the Saudi government.

Early Life

Muḥammad ibn ՙAbd al-Wahhāb (moo-HAHM-mahd ihb-uhn ab-DOOL-wa-HAHB) was born in the barren, harsh Najd province of Arabia. His family was not distinguished for its wealth but was known for its prestigious Ḥanbalī theologians and jurists. Therefore, from an early age, al-Wahhāb was surrounded by regular discussions of Islamic law and witnessed the direct application of legal philosophy. Al-Wahhāb’s uncle, Ibrāhīm ibn Sulaymān, was a judge and legal scholar who settled disputes throughout the al-Uyaynah region. His grandfather, Sulaymān ibn Ali ibn Musharraf, was one of the greatest authorities on Ḥanbalī teachings in the Najd. His father, ՙAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān, was a judge involved with religion and jurisprudence. He provided al-Wahhāb with his early instruction on Islamic interpretations and rulings.

Before he was ten years old, al-Wahhāb reportedly had memorized the entire Qur՚ān and had studied the Ḥadīth, that is, the accounts of the Prophet Muḥammad’s sayings and deeds. He began addressing the locals of his village, ՙUyaynah, about proper Islamic practices, persuading his audience through discussion rather than dogmatic preaching. Later, he proselytized in neighboring areas. Eventually, he began to challenge the authorities in the settlements and villages where he spoke, since he believed that personal reform would lead to public reform. Thus, he would often antagonize village authorities to the point where he would finally be asked to leave. The leaders of ՙUyaynah persuaded him to leave his home when he was still a teenager, at which point he made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Afterward, he went to Medina, where he studied with Islamic scholars and became more familiar with the concepts prevalent in the eighteenth century Islamic reform movement. He continued his studies in Basra and Zubayr (both now in Iraq) and in Ahsa and Huraymila, in Arabia, before finally returning to his hometown of ՙUyaynah. There, he wed the young aunt of the town’s ruler and established an alliance between himself as a religious leader and the village’s political leader.

Life’s Work

Al-Wahhāb’s reform movement was rooted in the teachings of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (780-855), the founder of the most conservative of the four orthodox schools of Islamic Law. Al-Wahhāb basically interpreted Ḥanbalism for the locals of central Arabia, presenting it in a clear, easily graspable way. He eschewed medieval views of Islam and called for a return to the Qur՚ān and Ḥadīth. His focus was on a pure monotheism, and he therefore condemned what he perceived to be innovations such as the cult of saints, shrine worship, and practices that showed a reverence for anything other than God. He was also concerned with applying a strict interpretation of the Sharia, that is, Islamic law.

Through his alliance with theՙUyaynah authorities, al-Wahhāb gained political protection and military strength, which enabled him to manifest the seriousness of his beliefs. He was now able to destroy symbols of the region that were praised or worshiped, since only God should be treated with such veneration: He cut down sacred trees and decimated the tomb of a historically important Islamic figure, Zayd ibn al-Khattab. He had an adulterous woman in ՙUyaynah stoned, after issuing several warnings to her. These three actions, involving the trees, tomb, and woman, set the tone by which Wahhābism would be viewed in the coming centuries. Eventually, the ulamas, the Muslim scholars of ՙUyaynah, whose positions were threatened by his movement, declared him a militant, an extremist, and a source of instability. The ruler of ՙUyaynah was compelled to ask him to leave once more.

Al-Wahhāb went to Ad-Dirՙīyah, a settlement about forty miles south of ՙUyaynah and about nine miles north of present-day Riyadh. The leader of Ad-Dirՙīyah was Muḥammad ibn Saՙūd, whose family had ruled there since the fifteenth century. Al-Wahhāb wanted to make an alliance with the ibn Saՙūd but was cautious and at first did not openly talk about his reformist beliefs. Clandestinely, however, he began to acquire devout followers. Three of these disciples, a woman and two men, went to visit ibn Saՙūd’s wife and brother to share al-Wahhāb’s beliefs, especially those concerning monotheism. Ibn Saՙūd’s wife embraced the concepts and accepted the pronouncement that ibn Saՙūd had a divine calling to promote monotheism. She and two of ibn Saՙūd’s brothers together convinced him of the significance of al-Wahhāb’s teachings.

The two powerful figures, al-Wahhāb and ibn Saՙūd, eventually met and formed their famous pact in 1744: Together they would rule, with al-Wahhāb controlling religious aspects and ibn Saՙūd controlling politics and the military. Muḥammad ibn Saՙūd had assumed control of Ad-Dirՙīyah around 1726, and, although a man of grand ambitions, he could do little on his own to unite the greater area of Najd because he lacked sufficient wealth and meaningful tribal connections. His union with al-Wahhāb elevated his status, since he could receive “tax” money through zakat contributions (required religious donations) and hold the title of political leader of the Muslim community. Ibn Saՙūd now had the funds and the influence to expand his empire. Al-Wahhāb in return acquired the government backing needed in order to enforce his doctrines.

Ibn Saՙūd embarked on a series of conquests to consolidate his power over the region. Al-Wahhāb did not interfere; however, he often did not necessarily support these actions either. Contrary to some opinions, he did not seek to convert neighbors through force; therefore, these military engagements were not always necessarily jihads, or holy wars. Only the religious leader, Imam al-Wahhāb, had the authority to declare jihad, and he would do so only if he determined the situation to be religiously legitimate. Al-Wahhāb apparently found some military campaigns distasteful, and he would leave ibn Saՙūd’s company during these campaigns. This, no doubt, caused some strain between ibn Saՙūd and al-Wahhāb.

This tension was only magnified by the fact that al-Wahhāb was not concerned with the spoils of war, nor with materialistic life in any form. Ibn Saՙūd, however, was in a position that required him to reward his followers and keep his new subjects comfortable to ensure their contentment and consequent support. Al-Wahhāb was disturbed by the resulting materialism he saw and held the Saՙūd clan responsible for its spread.

Muḥammad ibn Saՙūd died in 1767 and was succeeded by his son, ՙAbd al-Aziz. Ad-Dirՙīyah underՙAbd al-Aziz became more materialistic, a place of relative luxury and power. The Saՙūd clan conquered the city of Riyadh in 1773, after which al-Wahhāb resigned as imam and withdrew from political life. He continued to consult withՙAbd al-Aziz but had more or less removed his imprimatur from all Saՙūdi military activities.

Significance

Muḥammad ibn ՙAbd al-Wahhāb was one of the most learned men of his time and place. He was a prolific writer and lecturer, as well as a leading figure in the various communities he encountered. His main concern was to bring Muslims back to the concept of tawhid, absolute monotheism. Indeed, he believed all Islamic reverence should go to God, and he would be displeased to know that the reform movement, at least in the Western world, carries his name, “Wahhābism.” His distress with past interpretations of Islam compelled him to return to scripture. In some ways, he was the Martin Luther of the Arab world. His work represented eighteenth century Islamic trends, but his influence has been felt into the twenty-first century. Some of his extreme actions have been viewed as sanctions by contemporary Wahhābis/Salafis likewise to destroy certain artifacts or punish those who offend or do not follow Islamic law. If it were not for his union with ibn Saՙūd, which resulted in a continued relationship between Wahhābis and the Saՙūd clan, the tribes of Arabia would not have been unified and there would be no present-day Saudi Arabia.

Bibliography

DeLong-Bas, Natana J. Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Excellent source on al-Wahhāb, his life, views on women, theology, Islamic law, and modern implications. More balanced view of al-Wahhāb than many other texts that discuss Wahhābism.

Rasheed, Madawi al-. A History of Saudi Arabia. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. An accessible yet scholarly history written by a social anthropologist. The opening chapter discusses al-Wahhāb and his Saudi union.

Vassiliev, Alexei. The History of Saudi Arabia. London: Saqi Books, 1998. The most comprehensive history in English of Saudi Arabia to date. Includes a chapter on al-Wahhāb and his teachings. Associates Wahhābism with fanaticism.