Muhammad Siad Barre
Muhammad Siad Barre was a prominent Somali military leader and politician, born around 1910 in Shiilaabo, Abyssinian Somaliland (now Ethiopia). He rose through the ranks of the Somali police force and the national army, ultimately leading a bloodless coup in 1969 that brought him to power as the president of Somalia. Siad Barre initiated a regime characterized by dictatorial rule, promoting a political ideology he termed "scientific socialism," which aimed to modernize Somalia's economy while aligning with Marxist and Islamic principles. His administration implemented significant reforms, including the promotion of the Somali language and efforts to increase literacy and women's rights.
However, his rule was marred by repression, favoritism towards specific clans, and widespread human rights abuses. Following a failed military invasion of Ethiopia in 1978, support for his regime began to wane, leading to growing resistance from various opposition groups. By the early 1990s, civil war engulfed Somalia, resulting in Barre's ousting in 1991 and subsequent descent into chaos as clan-based factions vied for power. After his departure, Somalia struggled with a lack of central authority, leading to ongoing conflicts and humanitarian crises. Siad Barre died in exile in Nigeria in 1995, leaving a complex legacy impacting Somalia's political landscape for years to come.
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Muhammad Siad Barre
Dictator of Somalia (1969-1991)
- Born: c. 1910
- Birthplace: Shiilaabo, Ogaden, Abyssinian Somaliland (now in Ethiopia)
- Died: January 2, 1995
- Place of death: Lagos, Nigeria
Siad Barre instituted a political system he called “scientific socialism,” which reflected both an ideological and economic dependence on the Soviet Union. After being abandoned by the Soviet Union, Siad Barre forged a political alliance with the United States. His regime was condemned by human rights groups for a consistent pattern of ethnic discrimination and political imprisonment, torture, and killings. As a result of his policies, particularly his manipulation of ethnic and tribal conflicts, Somalia remains a nation without a functioning government.
Early Life
Estimates of when Muhammad Siad Barre (SI-ahd BAHR-ee) was born vary from 1910 to 1920 with no official record available, but most show he was born around 1910. Siad Barre was born in Shiilaabo, Abyssinian Somaliland (now in Ethiopia). His father was from the Marehan clan, with which Siad Barre closely identified himself. He was orphaned at a young age, and in his early life worked as a shepherd. He was educated in private schools in Mogadishu and attended a military academy in Italy and the School of Administration and Politics in Somalia.
From 1941 to 1960, Siad Barre served in the Somali police force, rising to the rank of chief inspector. When, in 1960, the Somali Republic was created out of territories formerly ruled by Italy and Great Britain, Siad Barre was appointed colonel and deputy commandant of the newly formed Somali national army. In 1962 he attained the rank of brigadier general and was promoted to major general in 1966. On October 21, 1969, after the assassination of the president of Somalia, Abdirashid Ali Shermarke , General Siad Barre led a successful, bloodless coup and assumed the powers of president and spokesman for the revolution.
Life’s Work
Siad Barre assumed dictatorial leadership of the officers who deposed the civilian government and was installed as president of the new governing body, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC). Some early initiatives of the new regime were to introduce a Latin script for the unwritten Somali language and to require that education in government schools use the Somali language. This was followed by a campaign to increase literacy in Somalia, which was somewhat successful in that literacy was estimated to be 5 percent in 1972 and 24 percent in 1990. The adoption of Somali as the national language helped encourage equality, as traditionally most of the important positions in the government were given to those who spoke either Italian or English. A family law also was passed, increasing the rights of women.
As dictator of Somalia, Siad Barre instituted a political system he called “scientific socialism,” which reflected both ideological and economic dependence on the Soviet Union. According to Siad Barre, scientific socialism had three components: community development based on the principle of self-reliance, socialism based on Marxist principles, and Islamic ideology. A substantial proportion of the economy was placed under state control in an attempt to create a socialistic modern economy and improve living standards of citizens of Somalia. While the changes had modest success in the first five years of his regime, the economy later deteriorated because he was not able to blend Marxism and Islam in a way that satisfied Muslim Somalis.
Contrary to Siad Barre’s stated goal of bringing equality and unification to Somalia, he ruled as an iron-fisted dictator, with support heavily based on ethnic and tribal affiliation. The government’s inner circle comprised members of three clans: the Marehan of his father, the Ogaden of his mother, and Dulbahante, the clan of his son-in-law, Colonel Ahmed Suleimaan Abdullah. Despite the repression and favoritism of his regime, Siad Barre attempted to portray himself as a wise and paternalistic leader, and he fostered a cult of personality with posters and publications.
In a 1976 attempt to unite Somalis, Siad Barre invaded the Ogaden region, a disputed area of eastern Ethiopia and western Somalia. Unfortunately for Siad Barre, the Soviet Union sided with Ethiopia rather than Somalia in the conflict. With the help of Cuban troops and Soviet weapons, the Ethiopians successfully defended themselves from Somali invasion in 1978. After the split with the Soviet Union, Siad Barre sought and received support from the United States. Despite his well-documented human rights abuses, the United States became a strong supporter because of Somalia’s strategic location along Africa’s eastern coast, relatively near the oil-rich Persian Gulf.
Losing the 1978 invasion of Ethiopia contributed to the formation of organized opposition groups, and Siad Barre responded by intensifying political repression. He instituted widespread jailing, torture, and execution of dissidents, as well as suppression and persecution of ethnic groups. In the late 1980’s, rival factional groups dissatisfied army officers known as the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) began making substantial territorial gains, especially in the northern Somaliland region. During the 1980’s, an all-out civil war developed in Somalia. Siad Barre launched an intense counterinsurgency campaign. The civil war killed thousands, destroyed much of the country, and sent hundreds of thousands of refugees across neighboring borders. The rebellion spread and Siad Barre was forced to flee the capital on January 26, 1991.
Siad Barre’s departure left a power vacuum, with a number of clan-based guerrilla groups vying for power. As a result, Siad Barre’s successor, Ali Mahdi Muhammad (1991-1995), never managed to effectively govern Somalia. After several failed attempts to retake Mogadishu, Siad Barre went into exile. He initially went to Kenya and ultimately settled in Lagos, Nigeria, where he died on January 2, 1995, of a heart attack. He was buried in his hometown in Somalia.
Significance
With no effective central authority after Siad Barre’s departure from Somalia, the tribal tensions and conflicts he manipulated resulted in a civil war among feuding clans. Somalia disintegrated into chaos. Into the twenty-first century, because of inter- and intraclan fighting, Somalia was without an effective central government, which led to a deteriorated infrastructure, the disintegration of basic health and social services, and widespread human rights abuses.
According to the United Nations Refugee Agency, conflicts displaced close to 400,000 people in the central and southern regions of Somalia. Because the displaced could not meet basic survival needs, the U.N. Development Program reported that Somalia had one of the worst human development indicators in the world.
The Transitional Federal Government (TFG), created in 2004, remains, theoretically, the government of Somalia. However, the TFG, divided since inception, controlled only southern Somalia and has not been recognized by most Somalis. A Muslim insurgency in Somalia was led by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), which opposed the TFG and its supportive Ethiopian troops. Improving the situation in Somalia remains dependent upon the ICU and the TFG reaching agreement on the issues of power-sharing, the constitution, and security.
Bibliography
Bowden, Mark. Black Hawk Down: A Story of a Modern War. East Rutherford, N.J.: Penguin Books, 2000. A detailed account of the 1993 U.S. mission in Somalia that left eighteen U.S. soldiers dead.
Fitzgerald, N. J. Somalia: Issues, History, and Bibliography. New York: Nova Science, 2002. In addition to providing rich information about the national origin, history, and culture of Somalia, this book also extensively covers the human rights abuses and ethnic conflicts during and following the Siad Barre dictatorship.
Little, Peter. Somalia: Economy Without State. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. A very readable and informative account of the problems and successes of Somalia since the Siad Barre dictatorship.
Peterson, Scott. Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan, and Rwanda. London: Taylor and Francis, 2000. This book includes an excellent account of the collapse of Somalia into chaos and civil war beginning with the last days of the Siad Barre dictatorship.