Muslim Civil War of 861-870

At issue: Stability and control of the caliph of Baghdad in the ʿAbbāsid Dynasty

Date: 861-870

Location: Caliphate of Baghdad

Combatants: Various caliphs vs. their successors or relatives, both sides aided by Muslim/Turkish military leaders

Principal commanders:Caliph, al-Mutawakkil (822-861), al-Muntaṣir (d. 862), al-Mustaʿīn (d. 866), al-Muʿtazz (d. 869), al-Muhtadī (d. 870), al-Muʿtamid (d. 892); Military leaders, Salih ibn Wasif, Utāmish (d. 863), Ahmad ibn al-Khaṣīb, Musa ibn Mugha

Result: After a decade of instability, a Muslim Golden Age occurred

Background

When al-Mutawakkil became caliph of Baghdad in 847, he restored Islamic orthodoxy and persecuted all nonorthodox or non-Muslim groups. He faced both internal and external enemies, with rebellions and wars in outside provinces constantly plaguing his rule. He would be killed, however, by Turkish mercenaries directed by his eldest son, al-Muntaṣir, who feared the loss of his succession. Although al-Mutawakkil was widely disliked, his death sparked a decade of unprecedented instability and civil war.

Action

Al-Muntaṣir worked quickly to ensure his sole, unopposed rule. He reconstituted all previous laws and mandates set up by his father and deposed two brothers from the line of succession in favor of his own child. The rival Turkish shakiriyya army and a prominent military leader, Salih ibn Wasif, were deployed on the Byzantine front to get rid of any other rivals. Two men surfaced as aides to al-Muntaṣir and his rule: Utāmish, one of the leaders of the Sāmarrā army (a force suppressed under al-Mutawakkil), and Ahmad ibn al-Khaṣīb, a member of the Iraqi landowning families. Al-Muntaṣir’s attempts to solidify an unopposed rule, however, would prove to be fruitless, as he died of a heart attack only six months later, in 862.

A hastily assembled council decided to forgo any further members of the al-Mutawakkil family line, instead selecting an eighteen-year-old grandson of al-Muʿtaṣim, the caliph who preceded al-Mutawakkil. Given his young age, al-Mustaʿīn was probably chosen out of necessity rather than because he was a strong and capable ruler. The council then elevated Utāmish to the position of wazir (chief minister) and Ahmad ibn al-Khaṣīb to that of katib (administrative assistant). Within this arrangement, the council hoped to recognize the separation of military and financial affairs.

Utāmish, however, wanted to consolidate titles and power in order to further his career and ideas. Ahmad ibn al-Khaṣīb was quickly dismissed and exiled to Crete after only one month in office. Utāmish appointed a new katib, securing power through the selection of one of his followers. Utāmish, who possessed a strong sense of military power, reorganized the Sāmarrā army as well as civil laws pertaining to it. Although Utāmish’s changes showed professionalism and foresight, they caused rumblings within the army, and in 863, Utāmish was murdered, and all his changes were declared invalid.

This allowed the two other leaders of the Sāmarrā army, Wasif and Musa ibn Mugha, who lacked the desire for supreme control, to take charge of the situation. They quickly appointed a well-trained bureaucrat to assume control of the administrative tasks. When a military leader was murdered by Wasif and Mugha over the granting of estates, however, a civil war once again erupted. The Sāmarrā army turned against Wasif and Mugha, who were supported by the shakiriyya, and an open conflict ensued. Al-Mustaʿīn attempted to calm the rising emotions of the Sāmarrā forces but to no avail. Realizing their position, Wasif and Mugha sought support from the al-Mustaʿīn and the Tahirid forces in Baghdad. The conflict became one between Sāmarrā and Baghdad.

Sima al-Sharabi, having emerged as the leader of the Sāmarrā forces, planned for the inevitable fight against Baghdad. One of al-Mutawakkil’s sons, al-Muʿtazz, was brought out of prison and proclaimed the rival ruler. His brother, Abu Ahmad, was put in charge of the expected military operations. With their operations and administration in order, Abu Ahmad and the entire army approached Baghdad. The siege began, and the city was soon suffering from food shortages. When fighting broke out, neither side could gain an advantage over the other. With a stalemate evident, Abu Ahmad called for negotiations. After much opposition, terms were agreed upon. Al-Muʿtazz was accepted as ruler, and al-Mustaʿīn was deposed and exiled (866). Wasif and Mugha were appointed governors in Sāmarrā but were later murdered for fear that they would attempt to regain their lost power.

However, fighting quickly broke out in Baghdad, as forces sent to aid in the fight against the Sāmarrā went unpaid. Resources were taken from the shakiriyya to appease the forces from the east, only to begin the fighting, which would later see the Tahirid forces prevail and the shakiriyya dispersed.

With his new position as ruler, al-Muʿtazz seems to have wanted complete power through the control of the army. This desire led him to arrest his brother, Abu Ahmad, who had just won him a victory, to depose his other brother, and to murder al-Mustaʿin, who was already in exile. A few months later, he banished both of his brothers, who took refuge with the Tahirids in Baghdad. To gain control of the army, al-Muʿtazz attempted to win the favor of the most powerful generals by granting them provincial governorships. The attempt to satisfy every general was not an easy task, however, and he quickly fell out of favor with Wasif. At this point, an open struggle began between al-Muʿtazz and the generals. A power struggle began involving bureaucrats divided between al-Muʿtazz and the generals. Eventually the military won, and Wasif took control, deposing al-Muʿtazz and replacing him with his nephew, al-Muhtadī.

Conflicts, however, would continue. When Mugha, who was on a minor policing operation, heard of the developments in the capital, he was concerned and decided to return. Upon his arrival, Wasif went into hiding, and the power struggle began anew. However, the men of the army were growing tired of the struggle among generals. They unified and pledged support for al-Muhtadī in an effort to end the constant fighting. Their support was conditional and focused mainly on their own fiscal concerns. Although he wanted the army’s support, al-Muhtadī was not able to meet all these demands, and once again fighting broke out. In the struggle, several generals saw their chance to depose him. However, al-Muhtadī called on those who sought to support him, and some of the generals were arrested. In this attempt to gain control, al-Muhtadī was wounded and died in 870, only eleven months into his reign. Once again a son of al-Mutawakkil, al-Muʿ tamid, was released from prison and proclaimed successor.

Aftermath

After all the conflict that had plagued his father and brothers, al-Muʿtamid enacted a compromise to end the fighting and laid the foundations for military peace and economic prosperity throughout the region. For the first time in a decade, the Islamic empire would see an era of prosperity and progress. In industry and commerce as well as the arts and sciences, al-Muʿtamid would begin an era that would later be called the Golden Age of Islam.

Bibliography

Hitti, Philip. History of the Arabs. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1970.

Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab Peoples. New York: Warner Books, 1991.

Shaban, M. A. Islamic History,a.d. 600-750: A New Interpretation. Vol 2. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1976.