Nnamdi Azikiwe

President of Nigeria (1963-1966)

• Born: November 16, 1904
• Birthplace: Zungeru, Nigeria
• Died: May 11, 1996
• Place of death: Enugu, Nigeria

Azikiwe founded modern Nigerian nationalism and was the leader of Nigeria’s independence struggle. He became the first president of the Republic of Nigeria in 1963 and retained that position until ousted during a 1966 coup. He also founded the University of Nigeria at Nsukka and was its first chancellor.

Early Life

Nnamdi Azikiwe (n-DAH-may ah-zee-KEE-way) was an Ibo who was born in Northern Nigeria and spoke fluent Hausa, the Northern trade language. Fluency in Hausa helped him become a national leader later in life. Azikiwe was educated at the Church Missionary Society’s Central School at Onitsha, the Hope Waddell Training Institute in Calabar, and the Methodist Boys’ High School in Lagos. While in high school, he read the work of Marcus Garvey. At age sixteen he vowed to redeem Africa. That same year, Kwegyir Aggrey spoke at his school and told the students. “Nothing but the best is good enough for Africa.” Since both of Azikiwe’s heroes, Garvey and Aggrey, were based in the United States, Azikiwe was determined to go there, acquire an education, and return to uplift Nigeria.

Zik, as he was known to his classmates, was graduated at the head of his high school class in 1925. Without money or backers, he decided to stow away on a ship to get to the United States. He reached Ghana before this plan collapsed. He trained for the police force in Ghana, but his parents asked that he return to Nigeria, and he obeyed. Azikiwe’s father opposed his plan to study in the United States but changed his mind when he himself was insulted by a young white clerk who called Azikiwe’s father an “uneducated black ape.” Azikiwe’s father decided that only education would ensure respect for Africans, so he decided to help his son further his education by giving him six hundred dollars.

Once in the United States, Azikiwe was helped by sympathetic Americans. He also earned money from menial jobs to help pay for his education. He remembered reading about Abraham Lincoln and James Garfield working their way up from log cabins to the White House through sacrifice, hard work, and determination. He spent every spare hour reading or playing sports. Azikiwe’s first two years of study at Howard University were under American diplomat and future Nobel Peace Prize winner Ralph Bunche. Bunche said that Azikiwe had remarkable mental ability, integrity, courage, industry, and promise. In 1929, Azikiwe attended Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, earning his B.A. by 1930. Azikiwe served as a graduate instructor at Lincoln for two years while enrolled in Columbia University’s School of Journalism. Within two years, he had earned an M.A. in political science from Lincoln University, a certificate in journalism from Columbia University, and an M.A. in anthropology from the University of Pennsylvania.

While in the United States, Azikiwe gained journalistic experience writing for the Baltimore Afro-American, the Philadelphia Tribune, and the Associated Negro Press in Chicago. He was awarded two honorary doctorates, a doctorate of literature from Lincoln and an L.L.D. from Howard University.

Life’s Work

In 1934, Azikiwe returned to Africa and became the editor in chief of a Ghanian newspaper, the African Morning Post. Colonial authorities found one of his articles seditious, and he was charged, convicted, then later acquitted on appeal. In 1937, he returned to Nigeria. He fought against colonial rule and founded the West African Pilot and four other newspapers in a chain controlled by Zik Enterprises Limited. His businesses were soon worth more than two million dollars. He used this network of newspapers to agitate for change. In his editorials he argued for one-person, one-vote, direct elections, African control of the civil service, and the Nigerianization of the armed forces. With Herbert Macaulay, he founded the National Convention of Nigeria and the Cameroons, or NCNC, in 1942. His papers spread his radical political ideals to every corner of Nigeria and helped increase the membership of the NCNC. The NCNC embraced all Nigerian tribes and was national in scope. It fought for the working class and for self-rule. Azikiwe by this time was the undisputed leader of the Ibo and a prominent national leader.

In the teeth of sustained agitation spearheaded by Azikiwe as president of the NCNC, Great Britain decided to grant Nigeria self-rule in 1951. In the subsequent elections, Azikiwe was elected to represent Lagos. The Yoruba-dominated Action Group, under Chief Obafemi Awolowo, won control of the legislature in the Western Region, where Lagos was located. Azikiwe became leader of the opposition, but the Action Group blocked his election to the federal assembly. Bitter rivalry began between the Ibo-controlled NCNC and the Yoruba-controlled Action Group Party. Ethnic conflicts ultimately led to bloody civil war and caused the deaths of more than one and a half million people, many of whom were children.

The NCNC controlled the Eastern Region. The British accused Azikiwe of withdrawing $5.6 million in government funds and putting this money in his own African Continental Bank to save it from collapse. He was tried and found guilty of improper conduct. Azikiwe argued that this was merely a trick to postpone independence. Nigeria’s rank and file, as well as the masses, viewed Azikiwe as their redeemer. Thus, he was able to survive the crisis and disband the Regional Legislature without difficulty. He called elections, and he and the NCNC were swept into power. He resigned from the Western Legislature and became the premier of Eastern Nigeria until the 1959 preindependence elections for the federal government were called. None of the major parties contesting this election won a decisive majority. Three parties contested the 1959 elections the Northern Peoples Congress, the NCNC, and the Action Group. The Northern Peoples Congress won more seats than any other party, followed by the NCNC. These two parties decided to form a coalition government. The Action Group formed the opposition.

Azikiwe was appointed governor-general of Nigeria and Deputy Leader of the National Peoples Congress. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa became the prime minister. Although Azikiwe often used the threat of communism to speed up independence, his vast business holdings made him favor capitalist development. This was also true of Tafawa Balewa. The fact that both men spoke Hausa drew them close together and strengthened the bond of trust between them. In October, 1963, Nigeria became a republic. It now had both internal self-government and control over its foreign affairs. Azikiwe was appointed president of the Federal Parliament because of his leading role in the independence struggle and his great popularity.

Azikiwe founded the University of Nigeria at Nsukka. This school helped unify Nigeria by expanding a common pattern of education and high levels of literacy in English, which facilitated interethnic movement and understanding. As a result, a homogeneous class of educated Africans would begin to exert considerable influence on the process of modernization and the development of a national identity.

As president, Azikiwe helped write a federal constitution that was the supreme law of the land. He fought against all forms of corruption, favoritism, tribalism, and discrimination. He stated that he wanted to build on the American model, wherein “each one cares enough to share enough so that everyone has enough.” In line with this thought, he encouraged the modernization of farming, but here he encountered a serious problem that led to suffering and despair. In 1961, Nigeria’s leading earner of foreign exchange was cocoa. Yoruba farmers excelled in cocoa production and were among the most efficient and prosperous cocoa producers on earth. Azikiwe asked them to pay federal taxes on the cocoa that they sold. Many balked at this request and refused to comply. Discontent mounted, and soon the federal government uncovered a plot to overthrow the government. Awolowo of the Action Group was arrested on charges of instigating the coup attempt. He was tried, found guilty, and sentenced to ten years in prison. The Yoruba were incensed that their leader had been jailed. Rioting broke out, and a state of emergency was declared in the Western Region. The Western Region became an area of chronic unrest.

To implement his plan for sharing Nigeria’s resources fairly, Azikiwe called for a census. This created problems, as regions padded figures to secure more than their share of the federal budget, so a recount was mandated. Again the same problem arose. The census demonstrated that the North had an absolute majority by itself. Both Southern regions feared that this meant their eternal domination by the North. Most people in the North were Muslim and most Southerners were Christian, so this census created unmanageable tensions. Western missionaries had located most of their schools in the South. This meant that the best-educated people and those most fluent in English were mainly Southerners. Civil service examinations were written in English. Northerners went to Qur՚ān school, which emphasized Arabic, which handicapped their students in competitive national exams. The North felt discriminated against and wanted jobs assigned by quotas. Southerners wanted jobs allocated based on competition. If the census was correct, the North would win the argument based on its numerical strength. Southerners wanted a merit system. Inability to agree on how to conduct a decisive census made sharing Nigeria’s wealth problematic and inflamed passions.

The army feared general civil disorder as these problems lingered inconclusively. In 1966, the government was overthrown, and Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and several other prominent officials were assassinated. Azikiwe was out of the country and thus was spared. An Ibo, General Ironsi, led the coup. Since Azikiwe, who was also an Ibo, was the only major political leader spared death, Northerners concluded that the coup was part of an Ibo conspiracy to take over Nigeria and control its wealth for themselves. A general massacre of Ibos living in the North followed. Ibos who could escape streamed home to the Eastern Region of the South.

Azikiwe had long encouraged mineral exploration, and oil was discovered, by coincidence, at this time in the East. Azikiwe asked Ibo leaders to share this wealth with the nation. Ibo leaders such as Colonel Ojukwu were so distressed by the massive killing of Ibo in the North and the inability of the federal government to protect Ibo that they refused to agree to share oil revenue. They seceded instead and formed the state of Biafra. Azikiwe’s counsel of calm and reason was ignored, leading to the tragedy of Nigeria’s civil war.

Azikiwe isolated himself in his home at Nsukka for part of the war and devoted himself to journalism and writing. His best-known books include My Odyssey (1970) and Liberia in World Politics (1934). The burning and destruction of the library at the University of Nigeria at Nsukka was a great loss to Azikiwe.

Azikiwe joined the Biafran government in 1967 and worked abroad to win recognition for it. After several years of carnage, it became clear that secession had failed. From this point on, Azikiwe worked for national reunification and reconciliation. He stayed overseas until 1972, when he returned to assume chancellorship of Lagos University. In 1979, civilian rule was restored and Azikiwe entered the political arena as a presidential candidate. Shehu Shagari won the election and defeated Azikiwe a second time in 1983. The military regime planned to restore civilian rule in 1991 but banned all former officeholders from actively seeking election.

Significance

The spirit behind the nationalist mass movement that led to independence, Azikiwe was the major actor in the struggle to gain independence. He embodies the bold, aggressive style of southern Nigerian leadership. It is said that, as founder of the NCNC, he forged one of the most efficient and effective political machines in Africa. Azikiwe became the first president of the Republic of Nigeria and invited steel and oil companies to help Nigeria develop its resources. Nigeria’s oil industry is one enduring monument to his enterprise and foresight.

Expansion of educational opportunities was one of his major goals. He founded the University of Nigeria at Nsukka, extended primary and secondary education, and encouraged Nigerians to seek opportunities abroad. Nigeria has more students studying in the United States than the rest of Africa combined. More than a simple story of rags to riches, Azikiwe’s life story embodies the ambitions and ideals of modern Africa. His inspiring rise from dusty army barracks to state house has motivated millions to improve their lives.

Bibliography

Azikiwe, Nnamdi. My Odyssey. New York: Praeger, 1970. A very detailed account of Azikiwe’s genealogy, his quest for education, and his trials and successes. This book provides excellent insights into the creation of his business empire and of the preindependence struggle.

Candee, Marjorie Dent, ed. Current Biography Yearbook, 1957. New York: H. W. Wilson, 1957. Discusses the machinations of the preindependence struggle. It explains the intrigue and tensions that almost sabotaged Nigeria, as well as Azikiwe’s role in cementing unity.

Jones-Quartey, K. A. B. A Life of Azikiwe. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1965. Written by a former student of Azikiwe, this book explains Azikiwe’s fascination with Garvey and Aggrey and their significance for Nigeria. Provides a great history of the formation of the NCNC but, being written before 1966, has nothing on either of the coups that have rocked Nigeria or on the civil war.

Lipschutz, Mark, and R. Kent Rasmussen, eds. Dictionary of African Historical Biography. 2d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. A brief biographical sketch. This work contains a discussion of Azikiwe’s relationship with Herbert Macaulay and a discussion of the origins of the NCNC. Briefly describes Azikiwe’s role as founder of the struggle for independence.

Lynch, Hollis R. “Azikiwe.” In The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography, vol. 1. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. A brief look at Azikiwe’s life up to the date of publication. Includes a bibliography and a photograph of Azikiwe.

Taylor, Sidney, ed. The New Africans. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1967. Excellent discussion of the tension and animosity between Awolowo and Azikiwe. This work suggests that, when one ethnic group dominates control of valued resources in a multiethnic state, the result can be extreme imbalance, exaggerated competition, conflict, and violence.

Tijani, Hakeem Ibikunle. Britain, Leftist Nationalists, and the Transfer of Power in Nigeria, 1945-1965. New York: Routledge, 2006. This examination of leftist ideology and political movements in colonial and postcolonial Nigeria includes a chapter about Azikiwe’s ideas, “Reconstructing the Zikist Movement, 1945-1950.”

Zachernuk, Philip S. Colonial Subjects: An African Intelligentsia and Atlantic Ideas. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000. An intellectual history of Africa from precolonial times in 1840 to the earliest years of independence in 1960. Focuses on how southern Nigerian intellectuals, including Azikiwe, conceived of Africa’s place in the world.