Northern War
The Northern War, primarily involving Sweden, Poland, Denmark, and Russia during the mid-17th century, was a significant conflict that stemmed from the broader geopolitical struggles in Northern Europe. At its core, the war arose from Sweden's ambition to expand its influence and territory, particularly in the Baltic region and against the backdrop of political turmoil in Poland following the Cossack rebellion. In July 1655, Sweden initiated a two-pronged invasion of Poland, capturing key cities including Poznan and Warsaw, which highlighted Sweden's military prowess at the time.
However, the conflict soon escalated, drawing in Denmark and Russia as Sweden faced resistance from Polish forces and shifting alliances. The war saw notable battles, such as the siege of Copenhagen and the eventual defeat of the Swedes at Nyborg. The shifting tides of war culminated in the death of Swedish King Charles X and the subsequent peace treaties, including the Treaty of Oliva with Poland, the Treaty of Copenhagen with Denmark, and the Treaty of Kardis with Russia, which collectively altered the regional balance of power.
Ultimately, the Northern War concluded in 1661 with Sweden securing several territories, including Scania from Denmark, marking a significant chapter in the history of Northern Europe. This conflict not only reshaped national borders but also influenced the dynamics of power in the region for years to come.
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Northern War
At issue: Swedish supremacy in the Baltic
Date: July, 1655-June, 1660
Location: Baltic region of Europe
Combatants: Swedes vs. Polish-Lithuanians, Brandenburg forces, Danish, Austrians, Russians, English, and the Dutch
Principal commanders:Swedish, Charles X, king of Sweden (1622–1660); Polish, John II Casimir, king of Poland (1609–1672); Brandenburg, Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640–1688)
Principal battles: Sandomierz, Warsaw, Frederiksodde, Nyborg
Result: Swedish acquisition of southern Scandinavian peninsula from Denmark
Background
The Swedish Empire included Sweden, Finland, and several Baltic islands, as well as Ingria, Estonia, Karelia, and Livonia in northeast Europe. Much of this land had been acquired by military conquest against Denmark, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia. The Thirty Years’ War and the Peace of Westphalia (1648) established Sweden as the leading power in the Baltic. Sweden acquired Verden, Bremen, Wismar, and West Pomerania in northern Germany. However, Sweden sought to acquire control of Scania from Denmark and the Baltic coastline and ports from Poland.
In 1648, the Ukrainian Cossacks rebelled against the rule of John II Casimir of Poland. The Cossacks allied with Czar Alexis I of Russia in 1654, resulting in a Russian invasion of Poland. Charles X Gustav of Sweden was encouraged to attack Poland based on the success of the Russian invasion and the belief that Poland was about to collapse.
Action
In July, 1655, Sweden launched a two-prong invasion of Poland. The Swedes captured Poznan, Warsaw, and then forced the main Polish army to surrender at Cracow in October, 1655. Charles X then invaded East Prussia and impelled Frederick William, the Great Elector, to ally with Sweden.
In 1656, the Poles rebelled against foreign occupation. The Polish army, under Stefan Czarniecki, trapped Charles X for a few weeks at Sandomierz (April, 1656), which allowed Casimir to clear southern Poland from Swedish occupation and regain Warsaw (June 30, 1656). However, Charles X and Frederick William defeated the Poles at Warsaw (July 28-30, 1656), and then reoccupied the city.
In May, 1656, Czar Alexis declared war against Sweden. The Swedes defeated Russian attempts to invade Ingria, Livonia, Estonia, and Karelia in 1656 to 1658. The czar was forced to agree to a three-year truce with Sweden in 1658.
In July, 1657, Frederick III of Denmark declared war against Sweden. The Danes invaded Bremen. Charles X left Poland and drove the Danes out of Bremen. The Swedes then invaded Jutland and defeated the Danes at Frederiksodde (October 24, 1657). From there, in January and February, 1658, Charles X led an army of 10,000 soldiers across the frozen sea using the islands of Fyn, Taasinge, Langeland, Lolland, and Falster as stepping stones to attack Copenhagen. This maneuver forced the Danes to accept the humiliating Treaty of Roskilde in February, 1658.
Charles X renewed the war with Denmark in August, 1658. The Swedes landed on the island of Zealand and besieged Copenhagen. Subsequently, Frederick William led a coalition army of 30,000 Brandenburgers, Austrians, and Poles against the Swedes, forcing them out of Schleswig and Holstein. In addition, Dutch and English naval action pressured the Swedes to end the Siege of Copenhagen. When Charles X refused to negotiate a peace settlement, the allies pursued an offensive against Swedish positions in Denmark and West Pomerania. Dano-Dutch forces defeated the Swedes at Nyborg (November, 1659) on the island of Fyn, and Frederick William invaded and captured most of West Pomerania in December, 1659.
Aftermath
The death of Charles X changed the diplomatic scene in February, 1660. In May, the Swedes ended the war with Poland, Brandenburg, and Austria in the Treaty of Oliva. Sweden and Denmark agreed to the Treaty of Copenhagen in June, 1660. The Russo-Swedish conflict ended with the Treaty of Kardis in June, 1661. As a result of these treaties, Sweden acquired the Danish territories of Scania, Blekinge, Boshuslän, Halland, and the island of Bornholm.
Bibliography
Kirby, David. Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period: The Baltic World 1492–1772. London: Longman, 1990.
Lisk, Jill. The Struggle for Supremacy in the Baltic, 1600–1725. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967.
Oakley, Stewart P. War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560–1790. London: Routledge, 1992.