Nuclear tests at Maralinga
Nuclear tests at Maralinga refer to a series of British-led nuclear experiments conducted in the Woomera Prohibited Area of South Australia between 1955 and 1963. This program included two major test series, Operation Buffalo (1956) and Operation Antler (1957), alongside approximately 550 minor trials that primarily tested nuclear weapon components. The testing was a part of the UK’s efforts to develop nuclear capabilities during the Cold War, with Australia providing a remote location for these activities.
The tests involved significant yields, such as the largest explosion during Operation Buffalo, which reached 15 kilotons of TNT. Despite the major tests, the minor trials were responsible for greater radioactive contamination due to the concentration of materials like plutonium in localized areas. The impact of these tests affected not only the environment but also the Aboriginal communities, who regard the land as sacred. Efforts to clean and remediate the contaminated areas have continued into the 21st century, with debates surrounding the effectiveness of these initiatives. In 2009, most of the lands were returned to the original custodians, and while access was granted, some areas remain designated as uninhabitable due to lingering contamination.
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Nuclear tests at Maralinga
The nuclear tests at Maralinga involved British-led nuclear tests in the Woomera Prohibited Area of South Australia, an area known as Maralinga. This program began in 1955 and saw two major tests, Operation Buffalo (1956) and Operation Antler (1957), as well as numerous smaller tests before the end of the program in 1963. Cleaning and repurposing the affected lands continued into the twenty-first century.
Background
In May 1955, the British government announced a permanent nuclear test site in a remote area of South Australia within the Woomera Prohibited Area, known as Maralinga. The United Kingdom (UK) was eager to develop nuclear capabilities to keep pace with the United States. The UK’s close ally, Australia, provided the open space needed for testing. The United Kingdom conducted two major series of tests: Operation Buffalo and Operation Antler in 1956 and 1957, respectively. Approximately 550 minor trials were also conducted until the site’s closure in 1963. The minor trials tested nuclear weapon components but did not include nuclear explosions. However, the minor trials caused more radioactive contamination than the major trials.
Overview
Operation Buffalo consisted of a series of four tests held in late September and October 1956. The first test, named One Tree, took place on September 27, and was delivered via a tower. The yield (the amount of energy released, measured in tons of TNT) was the largest of the four tests, at 15 kilotons of TNT. The cloud created by the explosion rose to 37,500 feet. The second test, Marcoo, was conducted on October 4. This time, the bomb was placed in a concrete-walled pit and detonated from the ground. Its yield of 1.5 kilotons of TNT created a crater 160 feet in width and 40 feet in depth. The third test, Kite, was held just a week later, on October 11. The bomb was dropped by a plane and yielded 3 kilotons TNT. On October 21, the final test of Operation Buffalo, Breakaway, took place on October 22 and was delivered from a tower. The 10-kiloton TNT explosion resulted in a cloud that rose to 35,000 feet. One Tree and Breakaway used the nuclear tactical device the British named Red Beard, whereas Marcoo and Kite used the Blue Danube device.
Operation Antler involved a series of three tests. The first test, Tadje, was held on September 14, 1957, using the nuclear device dubbed Pixie. It was delivered by a tower. The smallest of all nuclear explosions at Maralinga, Tadje produced a yield of 91 tons TNT and a cloud rising to 9,500 feet. In this test, the British used cobalt-60 tracer pellets to determine the yield. The second event, Biak, took place on September 25, 1957. Delivery was once again from a tower using the nuclear device Indigo Hammer. The cloud created by the 6-kiloton TNT explosion reached 14,000 feet. Due to less-than-ideal weather conditions, some fallout occurred in the area of the third test site, Taranaki. The Taranaki test took place on October 9, 1957. The device, Red Beard, was delivered by balloon. The balloon delivery proved more difficult, given its dependence on weather conditions and the handling of multiple large balloons, but because the explosion did not touch the ground, the fallout was lower. Taranaki was the largest of all tests conducted at Maralinga, producing a yield of 26.6 kilotons TNT, with the cloud reaching 23,000 feet.
Between 1953 and 1963, four series of minor trials were conducted at Maralinga. Codenamed Kittens, Tims, Rats, and Vixens, the tests explored the components plutonium, uranium, polonium, and beryllium. Whereas the fallout from the major tests drifted with the winds, the minor tests were responsible for much more concentration of contamination at the testing site. Roughly 22 kilograms of plutonium-239 were dispersed in the minor trials. Plutonium is a carcinogen (able to cause cancer) and is dangerous to humans and animals through inhalation, ingestion, or absorption. In addition, with a half-life of 24,100 years, plutonium’s radioactive effects remain long into the future.
With public support for nuclear testing waning in Australia and the development of the Christmas Island testing site in the Indian Ocean, the United Kingdom stopped testing at the Maralinga site in 1963. The site was officially closed in 1967. The first attempts to clean the site took place in 1963 with Operation Clean Up, followed by Operation Hercules in 1964. A major cleanup was carried out as Operation Brumby in 1967. The most contaminated soil was buried in the crater created by the Marcoo explosion. However, in 1979, the United Kingdom agreed to attempt to remove the buried radioactive materials. Despite these cleanup efforts, contamination remained. The Australian government, with partial funding from the United Kingdom, conducted a major cleanup between 1996 and 2000.
Although built in a remote location, the area in which Maralinga was built was inhabited by Aboriginal Australians, who considered the lands sacred. Some individuals witnessed the explosions from just a few miles away. The Maralinga Tjarutja were awarded $13.5 million in 1994 as compensation for the negative health effects of exposure. In 2009, most of the lands were returned to their original custodians, and all lands were opened in 2014, although 46 square miles were designated as accessible but not habitable. However, the effectiveness of the cleanup efforts has been debated.
Bibliography
“Backgrounder: Why Was Maralinga Used for Secret Nuclear Tests?” SBS News, 5 Nov. 2014. www.sbs.com.au/news/article/backgrounder-why-was-maralinga-used-for-secret-nuclear-tests/2jj77nps9. Accessed 5 June 2023.
“British Nuclear Weapons Testing in Australia.” Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency. www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation/sources-radiation/more-radiation-sources/british-nuclear-weapons-testing. Accessed 5 June 2023.
Donnison, Jon. “Lingering Impact of British Nuclear Tests in the Australian Outback.” BBC, 31 Dec. 2014. www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-30640338. Accessed 5 June 2023.
Griffiths, James. “Australia Is Still Dealing with the Legacy of the UK’s Nuclear Bomb Tests, 65 Years On.” CNN, 14 Oct. 2018. www.cnn.com/2018/10/14/australia/australia-uk-nuclear-tests-anniversary-intl/index.html. Accessed 5 June 2023.
Ladd, Mike. The Lesser Known History of the Maralinga Nuclear Tests—And What It’s Like to Stand at Ground Zero.” ABC News, 23 Mar. 2020. www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-24/maralinga-nuclear-tests-ground-zero-lesser-known-history/11882608. Accessed 5 June 2023.
“Maralinga.” National Museum of Australia. www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/maralinga. Accessed 5 June 2023.