Ontology
Ontology is the philosophical study focused on the nature of existence and what kinds of entities truly exist. It is a subset of metaphysics, which explores the fundamental aspects of reality and being. Rather than addressing material objects like cars or trees, ontology delves into broader inquiries about the reasons and mechanisms behind existence and what constitutes reality. The term originates from the Greek words "onto," meaning being, and "logia," meaning study.
The concept has deep roots in ancient Greek philosophy, with early thinkers like Parmenides and Heraclitus laying the groundwork through their contrasting views on existence. Parmenides argued for an eternal nature of being, while Heraclitus posited that change, represented by fire, is fundamental to existence. Later, Plato introduced the idea of abstract Forms that exist in an unchanging state, a notion that was challenged by his student, Aristotle, who focused on the relationships between entities.
In contemporary philosophy, ontology has evolved into various branches, with debates around whether existence is independent of human perception or constructed through thought. For example, the classic philosophical question about a tree falling in an unobserved forest exemplifies these discussions. Modern ontologists typically categorize existence into concrete entities, which occupy physical space, and abstract concepts, which may not have a physical manifestation but are acknowledged as real. This framework allows for deeper exploration of existence beyond mere physicality, inviting reflections on both historical events and individual experiences.
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Ontology
Ontology is the philosophical study of existence, specifically the attempt to determine what kinds of things actually exist. Ontology is considered a branch of metaphysics, the study of the fundamental nature of reality and being. Most types of ontology do not deal with existence in the material sense; it is generally accepted that objects such as cars, trees, and people do exist. Rather, the various forms of ontology attempt to answer the broader questions about why and how things exist and what makes them real. The roots of ontology can be found in the works of ancient Greek philosophers; the word itself is derived from the Greek onto (being) and logia (the study of).
Background
The ancient Greeks were one of the first cultures in history to use philosophy rather than mythology to explain the universe. Instead of attributing everything to the unpredictable actions of immortal gods, Greek philosophers turned to logic and rationality to define existence. The philosopher Heraclitus thought that fire was the underlying element of existence. The universe, he argued, was never ending, and that it originated in fire, was transformed by it, and would end in it. All things in the universe, therefore, existed because of fire. Parmenides, another philosopher, disputed Heraclitus and instead proposed his own theory on existence. Parmenides felt existence was eternal and it was impossible for things to arise from nothing. Even thinking about things that did not exist was impossible to Parmenides, as doing so would make them objects of thought, and therefore subjects of reality. The nature of being was constant, and any change humans believed they saw in life was nothing more than an illusion.
In the fourth century B.C.E., the philosopher Plato believed that Earth was a lesser extension of the heavens and things existed in unchanging and eternal states he called "Forms." To Plato, Forms originated in the heavens and were applied to things in the earthly realm. Humans, for example, exhibited the Form corresponding to what it means to be human. While Plato thought his Forms unchanging, he also considered them to be both part of being and not being. To illustrate the point, a circle can exhibit the Form of a circle, and therefore be a circle; but since no circle can ever be drawn as a perfect circle, they also exist in a state of not being. To further attempt to explain this, Plato developed the concept of abstract Forms, such as same and difference. Abstract concepts, he argued, were made from a Form that was not part of the natural world and existed outside of the realm of space and time.
Aristotle, who was a student of Plato, disputed his teacher on some aspects of the subject of existence. Aristotle argued that Plato's Form of difference was inaccurate because it attempted to compare everything to everything else. Aristotle made a distinction between difference and otherness, developing a four-aspect method to determine if something was considered a single entity, or one: continuity, wholeness, number, and kind. Otherness referred to a thing that was not one. In Aristotle's view, everything existed either as one with or other than everything else. For example, a tree and a blade of grass could be considered one because they are both plants, but at the same time, they are also other than each other because of their biological variations.
Overview
The subject of ontology was mostly stagnant after the time of the Greek philosophers until being revived in the philosophical renaissance of the seventeenth century. Since all ontological study is theoretical, modern ontology has evolved into numerous forms with many ideological branches. While most ontological thought takes the view that objects exist even when they are not being observed by humans, other theories hold that existence is purely the result of human thought. This can be illustrated by the common philosophical question, "If a tree falls in a forest and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound?" Another concept proposes that reality exists as a reflection of human perceptions of it, such as the way a work of art can be interpreted differently by different people. A view developed by eighteenth-century philosopher Immanuel Kant merges several ontological views, theorizing that existence is a combination of reality as it truly is, plus the human perception of it.
In general, modern ontology does not try to disprove the existence of material objects, nor does it try to prove the existence of otherworldly phenomena such as ghosts or aliens. Ontology attempts to determine the nature of existence by asking questions about what truly makes things exist. Ontologists often break down the nature of things into two categories: concrete and abstract. Concrete refers to things that exist within physical space and time, such as people, trees, buildings, or cities. Abstract refers to things that do not exist physically but are real concepts, such as numbers, facts, or possibilities.
This idea can be seen in a thought experiment using the historical example of the June 6, 1944, Allied invasion of Normandy during World War II. Historians can list the number of casualties that occurred during the invasion, and the number of tanks, boats, and soldiers that took part. In the more common ontological view, these things are concrete objects and are said to have existed. Take into account, however, the specific events that occurred that day or the experiences of individual soldiers. If a solider threw a grenade and it did not explode, did the grenade exist? Did the soldier exist? If he was shot during the attack, did his pain exist? If his grenade did explode, would he have then been shot? If there are records of the soldier and his injury, the answer to these questions may seem obvious. In the ontological view, however, the questions are meant to explore the broader question of whether something exists in a concrete or abstract reality.
Bibliography
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Cisney, Vernon W. "Differential Ontology." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, www.iep.utm.edu/diff-ont/. Accessed 12 Dec. 2016.
Effingham, Nikk. An Introduction to Ontology. Polity, 2013.
Grenon, Pierre, and Barry Smith. "Foundations of an Ontology of Philosophy." State University of New York at Buffalo, 2011, ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/Ontology‗of‗Philosophy.pdf. Accessed 13 Dec. 2016.
Jacquette, Dale. Ontology. Routledge, 2014.
"Logic and Ontology." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 13 Mar. 2023, plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ontology/. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
"Ontology for Beginners." Philosophy Now, philosophynow.org/issues/16/Ontology‗for‗Beginners. Accessed 13 Dec. 2016.
Roe, Charles. "A Short History of Ontology: It's Not Just a Matter of Philosophy Anymore." Dataversity, 7 June 2012, www.dataversity.net/a-short-history-of-ontology-its-not-just-a-matter-of-philosophy-anymore/. Accessed 13 Dec. 2016.