On Oratory by Cicero
**Concept Overview of "On Oratory" by Cicero**
"On Oratory," a seminal work by the Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero, explores the nuances and complexities of public speaking through a fictional dialogue among prominent orators of his time. The text presents Cicero's comprehensive theory of rhetoric, emphasizing the rarity of great orators due to the demanding nature of the art. Cicero outlines essential qualities for effective speakers, including a liberal education, mastery of language, psychological insight, and dynamic delivery. The dialogue features contributions from notable figures such as Licinius Crassus and Marcus Antonius, who debate the various dimensions and applications of oratory, notably in legal and political contexts.
Cicero builds on the classical Greek model of rhetoric, identifying three primary types of speeches—forensic, deliberative, and panegyric—and detailing the structure and style required for compelling delivery. He insists that a successful orator must combine the skills of a logician, philosopher, poet, and actor, demonstrating the integration of thought, style, and performance. Ultimately, "On Oratory" serves as both a practical guide and a philosophical reflection on the significance of rhetoric in shaping public discourse and influencing societal outcomes. This text is essential for understanding the foundations of oratory and its enduring impact on communication practices.
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On Oratory by Cicero
Excerpted from an article in Magill’s Survey of World Literature, Revised Edition
First published:De oratore, 55 b.c.e. (English translation, 1742)
Type of work: Essay
The Work
On Oratory takes the form of a dialogue, though it is fictional: It is merely a vehicle for Cicero to state his theory of public speaking, supported by the views of some other famous orators of his time. These are Licinius Crassus, Marcus Antonius, Sulpicius Rufus, and Caius Aurelius Cotta. Others participate in sections of the book; the most notable of them is Quintus Mucius Scaevola, the elderly lawyer and Stoic.
In book 1, Cicero offers On Oratory as his principal contribution to the discussion of rhetoric (the art of persuasion in all of its forms), indicating that it is to supersede all of his earlier statements on the subject, and that it is prompted by his brother Quintus’s inquiry about the matter. Great orators are rare, says Cicero, not owing to a dearth of men of ability but because of the difficulty of the art itself, in spite of its great rewards, both in compensation and in fame. Cicero calls for a liberal education (a wide general knowledge), mastery—not just fluency—in the language, psychological insight and sophistication, wit (sharpness of intellect), humor, excellent delivery (voice and gesture), and outstanding memory. All of these demands are to be satisfied if the speaker is merely to be competent to meet the usual demands of public life; leadership requires that they be mastered to a high degree, and that the speaker must first have attained a knowledge “of all important subjects and arts.”
“There is, to my mind,” says Crassus, “no more excellent thing than the power, by means of oratory, to get a hold on assemblies of men, win their good will, direct their inclinations wherever the speaker wishes or divert them from whatever he wishes.” In every free society that has enjoyed the fruits of peace and prosperity, the art of rhetoric has always flourished and reigned supreme; it is indeed puzzling that so few men have been given the power to use language to move others. Scaevola objects that Crassus values rhetoric too highly and proposes that its main uses are to be seen in the law courts and in political situations only. Crassus replies that rhetoric alone is insufficient: The great orator must be well versed in moral and political philosophy, his language must rival that of the poet, and his style must reveal his depth of education. Answering Scaevola, he admits that few can attain the ideal of a true liberal education, but that all should aspire to it. There follows Cicero’s view that “in an orator we must demand the subtlety of the logician, the thoughts of the philosopher, a diction almost poetic, a lawyer’s memory, a tragedian’s voice, and the bearing almost of the consummate actor. Accordingly, no rarer thing than a finished orator can be discovered among the sons of men.”
Cicero’s discussion of the art or science of rhetoric follows the Greek model, most clearly stated by Aristotle in his Rhetoric: There are three speech types (forensic, or courtroom; deliberative, or parliamentary; and panegyric, or speeches of praise and blame); speeches have three sections (introduction, discussion, and conclusion); and the act of speaking covers the arrangement of ideas, style, and delivery (involving voice, gesture, and memory). The competent speaker practices frequently. He or she writes themes to improve fluency and style, paraphrases poetry and prose extemporaneously and occasionally impromptu, delivers speeches upon all subjects and as often as the opportunity allows, practices gestures and trains the voice, engages in close reading of literature, and debates both for and against as many propositions as possible.
Book 2 takes the form of a second day’s discussion of the topic of oratory. Antonius proposes that oratory is not a science but that many useful rules can be derived from the observation of successful speakers: Oratory covers all good speaking and on all subjects. He suggests that the most difficult kind of oratory is forensic—courtroom speaking. There, the speaker is required to meet argument with argument and appeals to the emotions by appeals to the opposite emotions. Cicero proposes that wit and humor are natural gifts and cannot be taught; he suggests that there are two types of wit, irony and raillery, and that they are often particularly effective in court cases. Antonius resumes his contribution, proposing that the strongest argument should be placed either at the beginning or at the end of the speech.
Book 3 is devoted to a discussion of style, which Crassus holds to be inseparable from matter. Further, he says that various styles are necessary and admirable, but that the first consideration of the orator is clarity of diction. Embellishment should be produced naturally, not as an extravagance. Always, style should be adapted to a specific audience and occasion. Style depends on correctness, lucidity, ornateness, and appropriateness to the subject and occasion; but style without effective delivery is impotent, and effective delivery depends in large measure on a pleasing variety in vocal qualities: “This variation . . . will add charm to the delivery.”
Bibliography
Baldwin, Charles Sears. Ancient Rhetoric and Poetic Interpreted from Representative Works. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1971.
Cicero. De oratore. Translated by Edward W. Sutton and Harris Rackham. 2 vols. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1942-1948.
Cowell, Frank R. Cicero and the Roman Republic. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1956.
Fantham, Elaine. The Roman World of Cicero’s “De oratore.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Mitchell, Thomas N. Cicero. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979.
Mitchell, Thomas N. Cicero the Senior Statesman. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991.
Ramson, Elizabeth. Cicero: A Portrait. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983.
Steel, C. E. W. Cicero, Rhetoric, and Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Steel, C. E. W. Reading Cicero: Genre and Performance in Late Republican Rome. London: Duckworth, 2005.