Ottoman-Druze Wars
The Ottoman-Druze Wars were a series of conflicts in the early 17th century between the Ottoman Empire and the Druze community, led by Emir Fakhr al-Dīn. Initially, al-Dīn was a loyal vassal who helped maintain order in the mountainous regions between Syria and Lebanon. However, as his power expanded, it raised concerns within the Ottoman hierarchy, leading to military confrontations. The first significant battle occurred in 1613 at Beaufort Castle, where despite a lengthy siege by the Ottomans, the Druze successfully defended their stronghold.
The wars continued with various battles, including defeats for the Ottoman forces at Baruk and Tirun Castle. Al-Dīn's fortunes fluctuated with the changing political landscape of the Ottoman court, as alliances shifted and new viziers took power. Ultimately, by 1635, the Druze's power was largely diminished, resulting in the confiscation of their lands and a stronger Ottoman grip on the region. The outcomes of these conflicts significantly impacted the Druze's ability to maintain their sovereignty and diplomatic ties, marking a critical chapter in the history of both the Druze people and the Ottoman Empire.
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Ottoman-Druze Wars
At issue: Control over a semiautonomous religious sect within the Ottoman Empire, which supported the Persians in their wars against the Turks
Date: 1613–1635
Location: Syria and Lebanon
Combatants: Ottomans vs. Druzes
Principal commanders:Ottoman, Ḥāfiẓ Aḥmed (d. 1632), Mustafa Pasha, Murad IV (1612–1640); Druze, Emir Fakhr al-Dīn (c. 1572–1635)
Principal battles: Beaufort Castle, Baruk, Beirut
Result:Murad IV crushed the Druze influence during the Turko-Persian Wars and severed the group’s outside diplomatic and trading ties to the Italian city-states
Background
In the early 1600’s, Emir Fakhr al-Dīn led the Druze, a religious, nationalistic group within the Ottoman Empire. The sultan received tribute from al-Dīn, who also provided the additional service of restoring law and order in the mountainous region between Syria and Lebanon and protecting the pilgrim route from bandits. As al-Dīn’s power grew in the region, competing rulers complained to the sultan about the growing military capabilities of his group, including the repairing of fortresses and the establishment of a large army. The grand vizier who received the complaints had been a rival of al-Dīn and subsequently agreed to send imperial troops to fight against the emir. The Druze leader attempted to negotiate a settlement. When diplomatic efforts failed, he fled the country after making preparations for the defense of the cities. In 1613, he journeyed to Florence, where he remained as a guest of Cosimo de’ Medici, until his return in 1618.
Action
The first battle of the Ottoman-Druze Wars occurred at Beaufort Castle in October, 1613. Imperial and local troops numbering 50,000, under Ḥāfiẓ Aḥmed, the wali of Damascus, laid siege to the fortress, and for sixty days, cannons bombarded the fortifications. However, the Druze had adequate provisions and the walls withstood the attacks, so the siege was discontinued. The forces then moved on to Shuf, where the Druze repelled them. The imperial troops remained outside Shuf until al-Dīn’s son sent his mother with a ransom to lift the siege. The troops withdrew, taking his mother hostage. The imperial troops returned in 1614 and were defeated at Baruk and at Tirun Castle. That same year, the grand vizier died, and the new vizier, Muhammad Pasha, a friend of Al-Dīn, immediately offered the exiled leader amnesty. The emir returned to his homeland in October, 1618, and immediately repaid Ḥāfiẓ Aḥmed by burning his villages and taking all of the territory encompassing Mount Lebanon, the village of Qab Ilyas, and Beirut. By 1623, the Ottoman government granted him possession of Safad, Nablus, and Ajlun before a new vizier, Mustafa Pasha, replaced al-Dīn’s friend. The new vizier allied with the wali of Damascus, sending 12,000 troops against al-Dī n’s four divisions, which surrounded the imperial troops on all four sides before most of the forces fled. With arms from Cyprus and the Ottoman Janissaries in Damascus, al-Dīn forged a strong, highly disciplined army. As the reputation of al-Dīn spread, the Ottoman government became suspicious of his intentions because he controlled more than thirty fortresses, including those at Aleppo and Antioch. When al-Dīn refused to let Ottoman troops quarter for the winter on his land, the sultan responded quickly. Sultan Murad IV, ready to resume the war with Persia, realized the necessity of suppressing the Druze, as they were allies of the Persians. Their presence on his flank created a threat that needed to be eliminated. Al-Dīn realized the need for outside support and dispatched a request to Florence but received no assistance from the de’ Medici family. Fighting continued for a number of years, but by 1635, the power of the Druze had been broken.
Result
By crushing the influence of al-Dīn, the sultan eliminated a potential rival within his own borders. The Druze had maintained their own diplomatic ties to many of the enemies of the Ottoman Empire, including the Italians and the Persians. The confiscation of Druze lands added much needed wealth to the treasury and solidified control over the interior mountainous regions.
Bibliography
Abu Izzeddin, Nejla M. The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith, and Society. New York: Brill, 1993.
Betts, Robert Brenton. The Druze. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988.
Hitti, Philip Khuri. The Origins of the Druze People and Religion. New York: Columbia University Press, 1928.