Philipp Melanchthon

German religious scholar

• Born: February 16, 1497
• Birthplace: Bretten, Palatinate (now in Germany)
• Died: April 19, 1560
• Place of death: Wittenberg, Saxony (now in Germany)

Melanchthon, a Humanist scholar who became a close associate of Martin Luther in the Protestant Reformation, was the author of the Augsburg Confession of 1530, basically a summary of Luther’s teachings, which remains the fundamental confessional platform of worldwide Lutheranism. Melanchthon also is credited with having established the German school system.

Early Life

Philipp Melanchthon (meh-LANK-tehn) was born in the village of Bretten in the German Rhineland, some twenty miles south of Heidelberg. His given name was Philipp Schwartzerd; his father, Georg Schwartzerd, was an armorer under the Palatinate princes. His mother, Barbara Reuter, was a niece of the great Humanist and Hebrew scholar Johannes Reuchlin, whose influence over Philipp can be seen not only in his early studies but also in his Humanist leanings.

The eldest of five children, Philipp proved himself something of a child prodigy under the direction of his great-uncle Reuchlin, at that time regarded as the best Greek and Hebrew scholar in Germany. It was Reuchlin who first recommended Johann Unger of Pforzheim as Philipp’s private tutor and who later caused him to enroll in the Pforzheim Latin school, one of the most celebrated in the Palatinate. At Pforzheim, Philipp came under the influence of Georg Simler and John Hiltebrant, both classicists and excellent scholars of Latin, Hebrew, and Greek. It was there that Reuchlin, in recognition of Philipp’s accomplishments in the Greek classics, followed a contemporary custom and declared that such a brilliant young man should no longer be known by the humble name Schwartzerd (meaning black earth) but should henceforth be called by its Greek equivalent “Melanchthon.”

In October, 1509, Melanchthon followed the advice of Reuchlin and Simler and enrolled in the University of Heidelberg. During his years at Heidelberg, he seems to have pursued his studies for the most part by himself, preferring the Greek classics, such as the orations of Cicero and Demosthenes, to the medieval Scholastic orientation of Heidelberg. There, he also studied the writings of Rodolphus Agricola and the warm devotional sermons of Johann Geiler von Kaysersberg.

In 1511, Melanchthon, not yet fifteen years of age, was awarded the bachelor of arts degree from Heidelberg. Yet after another year of devoted study of Scholastic philosophy, his application for the master of arts degree was denied, primarily because of his youth and boyish appearance. Small for his age, Melanchthon had a somewhat shy and awkward manner about him and suffered from attacks of fever from time to time. Later portraits of him reveal a more serious demeanor, a thoughtful face marked by a very high forehead, penetrating eyes, and an aquiline, craggy nose. When lecturing on a topic of particular interest, he is said to have visibly changed in appearance, with his voice becoming clear and forceful, his actions animated, and his large blue eyes sparkling with delight and excitement.

In the fall of 1512, again at the advice of Reuchlin, Melanchthon left Heidelberg and moved south to Tübingen, Reuchlin’s own university, where he would reside as a student and later as professor for the next six years. A much newer university than Heidelberg, Tübingen had been founded in 1477 and was less under the influence of medieval Scholastic philosophy. At Tübingen, Melanchthon heard lectures on Aristotle that fascinated him for years. There, he came under the influence of the great Desiderius Erasmus, as well as certain “reformers before the Reformation,” such as John Wessel. He also began serious study of Hebrew and Latin. In 1514, he was awarded the master of arts degree, the first among eleven in his class. He then became a tutor at the university and, two years later, professor of rhetoric and history. During his Tübingen years, he published translations of Plutarch, Pythagoras, Agricola, and Terence Lucidas, as well as a Greek grammar and a handbook of general history, and began major works on Aristotle and Aratus. Melanchthon and his work were highly praised by Erasmus, and at Tübingen he became widely recognized as the finest Humanistic scholar in Germany.

Life’s Work

In the autumn of 1518, at the age of twenty-one, Melanchthon was called to become professor of Greek at the University of Wittenberg, once again largely as a result of the highest recommendation of his kinsman Reuchlin. At Wittenberg, he would spend the rest of his career; marry and rear a family; come under the powerful influence of Martin Luther, his closest friend for nearly thirty years; and become intimately involved in the Protestant Reformation and the education of Germany’s youth. Only four days after he arrived in Wittenberg, on August 29, 1518, Melanchthon delivered a lecture on the improvement of studies, in which he called for fresh study not only of the Latin and Greek classics but also of Hebrew and the Bible. This was an indication of his early interest in education, which would bear fruit in later years.

Melanchthon began his own lectures in Wittenberg with Homer and the Epistle to Titus. Luther was so inspired by Melanchthon’s lectures, some of which attracted as many as two thousand persons, including professors, ministers, and various dignitaries as well as students, that he made much more rapid progress in his translation of Scripture into German than he had made before. Melanchthon assisted Luther in collating the various Greek versions and revising some of his translations.

In November, 1520, Melanchthon married Katharine Krapp, daughter of the Wittenberg burgomaster, apparently primarily because Luther had concluded that it was time for Melanchthon to marry. Four children were born of this apparently happy union, which lasted thirty-seven years.

Melanchthon was first drawn into the Reformation controversies when he accompanied Luther and others to Leipzig in June and July of 1519 for the Leipzig Disputation between Luther and Andreas Carlstadt on one side and Johann Eck of Ingolstadt on the other. Melanchthon attended as a spectator but was shortly afterward attacked by Eck for aiding Luther and Carlstadt. Melanchthon replied to Eck in a brief treatise, in which he supported Luther’s argument on the supreme authority of Scripture and denied the authority of the church Fathers on whom Eck had relied so heavily in Leipzig. From that point onward, Melanchthon’s die was cast with the Protestant Reformers. Shortly thereafter, at Luther’s insistence, Melanchthon was made lecturer in theology in addition to his professorship in Greek. The degree bachelor of divinity was conferred on him; it was the only theological degree he ever accepted.

In 1521, during Luther’s confinement in Wartburg, Melanchthon became the main leader of the Reformation in Wittenberg. At that time, he had chosen Paul’s Epistle to the Romans as the subject for his lectures and had compiled from that letter a series of classified statements of scriptural truths that were to become one of the most influential manuals of Protestant theology. He wrote them primarily for his own personal use and called these statements “common places,” or Loci communes rerum theologicarum (1521; The Loci Communes , 1944), following a phrase of Cicero. At the encouragement of others, he allowed them to be published, and this document almost immediately established him in the theological forefront of the Reformation. Luther once even praised The Loci Communes as worthy of a place in the canon of Scripture.

For most of the remainder of his career, Melanchthon was greatly occupied with theological controversy and debate, largely in defense of Luther against charges brought by the Roman Catholics. He insisted that Luther was accused of heresy not because of any departure from Scripture but because he opposed the universities, the Fathers, and the councils of the Church in their theological errors. During Luther’s absence from Wittenberg in 1521 and 1522, a much more radical group of Reformers took control, primarily under the leadership of Carlstadt. Ecclesiastical vestments were abolished; persons were admitted to communion without confession or repentance; and pastoral oversight was neglected, as were hospitals and prisons. Melanchthon, the scholar, opposed such radical changes but was powerless to check them until Luther’s return in March, 1522. After he had restored some semblance of order to the Reformation in Wittenberg, Luther, with Melanchthon’s encouragement, completed his translation of the entire Bible into German, in many ways his own most important work and the one which introduced the Reformation to the masses.

After the First Diet of Speyer in 1526, Melanchthon was one of those commissioned to visit the various reformed states and issue regulations for the churches. This resulted in the publication, in 1528, of his Unterricht der Visitatorn (visitation articles), which contained not only a statement of evangelical Protestant theology but also an outline of education for the elementary grades. This was shortly thereafter enacted into law, and, as a result, Germany had the first real Protestant public school system, one which was soon copied far and wide. Hundreds of teachers were also trained in Melanchthon’s methods and thousands of students instructed by his textbooks. He encouraged the establishment of universities and revised dozens of schools’ curricula. All this earned for him the title “preceptor of Germany.” His influence on German education can hardly be overstated.

Moderate and at peace, Melanchthon was also present at the Second Diet of Speyer, when the protest, from which the name “Protestant” originated, was lodged against the Roman Catholic majority in 1529. He was the leading representative of Protestant theology at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 and the author of the Augsburg Confession of 1530. This document remains the basic confessional statement of worldwide Lutheranism, which has influenced nearly every subsequent major Protestant creed. Melanchthon tried very hard to be conciliatory in the Augsburg Confession without sacrificing important convictions. He met with papal representatives amid frequent charges of collaboration in an effort to reconcile Protestant-Roman Catholic differences. Eventually, he wrote a spirited defense of the Augsburg Confession entitled Apologie der Confession aus dem Latin verdeudschet(1531; The Apologie , 1536), also generally recognized as one of the best writings of the Reformation.

Melanchthon staunchly held the middle ground between more radical Reformers and the Roman Catholic theologians. He defended the Reformation doctrines of justification by faith and the authority of the Scriptures; yet for the sake of unity, he was willing to accept a modified form of the Papacy. After Luther’s death in 1546, Melanchthon’s later years were marked by poor physical health and major theological disputes, especially the so-called adiaphoristic controversy and arguments concerning the role of humans in salvation.

Adiaphora, religious beliefs and practices of indifference, were areas where flexibility or compromise may be necessary. Melanchthon, however, was unfairly accused of including among the adiaphora such essentials to the Protestant cause as justification by faith. He was, indeed, willing to recognize the necessity of good works for salvation, not as in any way meriting God’s favor but as the inevitable fruits of faith. Melanchthon eventually also seems to have rejected the doctrine of predestination, which he earlier shared with Luther. In The Apologie, he represented the mercy of God as extended to all, yet he insisted that God draws to himself only those who are willing to turn to him. Humans thus have an important role in the process of salvation, although a secondary one of response to God’s initiative in the written and preached Word. Melanchthon was unjustly accused of the heresy of Pelagianism as a result of his theological views, and his influence declined during his lifetime. It is only in modern times that his contributions have come to be fully appreciated.

Significance

Melanchthon is a prominent example of an outstanding theologian and scholar whose works have been neglected. His was a melding of the twin influences of the Renaissance and the Reformation. His services to educational reform in Germany, as well as to classical scholarship and Humanism, were outstanding, but it was as a theologian that he excelled. Throughout his lifetime, he tried to be a reconciler, and his influence was consistently thrown on the side of moderation and peace. Yet he was misunderstood and unappreciated by many of those on both sides of the great theological controversies of his age.

Bibliography

Hildebrandt, Franz. Melanchthon: Alien or Ally? Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1946. Reprint. New York: Kraus Reprint, 1968. An exploration of the complex relationship between Luther and Melanchthon, this volume is primarily an examination of the five main “concessions” said to have been made by Melanchthon to elements outside the inner circle of Protestant evangelicals. Particularly valuable in highlighting some of the most important doctrinal differences between Luther and Melanchthon.

Maag, Karin, ed. Melanchthon in Europe: His Work and Influence Beyond Wittenberg. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1999. Anthology of essays on Melanchthon covers such topics as his correspondence with John Calvin, his strategic alliance with the Swiss reformers, and the theological function of his rhetoric. Includes illustrations, bibliographic references, and index.

Mann, Jeffrey K. Shall We Sin? Responding to the Antinomian Question in Lutheran Theology. New York: Peter Lang, 2003. Examination of the responses of five major Lutheran thinkers to the question of the consequences of sin for those justified by faith. Evaluates the responses given by Luther himself, by Melanchthon, and by Philip Jakob Spener, S ren Kierkegaard, and Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Includes bibliography.

Manschreck, Clyde L. Melanchthon: The Quiet Reformer. New York: Abingdon Press, 1958. One of the most important works on Melanchthon currently available in English. Basically a historical approach. Manschreck also gives a sympathetic and lively description of the doctrinal issues that preoccupied so much of Melanchthon’s career. The volume is copiously documented and indexed, with a variety of interesting illustrations.

Melanchthon, Philipp. Melanchthon on Christian Doctrine: Loci Communes, 1555. Edited and translated by Clyde L. Manschreck. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965. The first translation into English of the 1555 (final) edition of The Loci Communes, this volume was translated and edited by the English-speaking world’s foremost Melanchthon scholar. Contains a valuable preface by Manschreck and an introduction by Hans Engelland, a German Melanchthon scholar. Good bibliography and index.

Richard, James W. Philip Melanchthon: The Protestant Preceptor of Germany, 1497-1560. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1898. Reprint. New York: B. Franklin Reprints, 1974. One of the best nineteenth century biographies of Melanchthon available in English. Richard includes many quotations from Melanchthon’s letters and other writings in this volume. Carefully documented and includes a helpful index and many illustrations.

Vajta, Vilmos, ed. Luther and Melanchthon in the History and Theology of the Reformation. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press, 1961. A series of addresses on the relationship between Luther and Melanchthon delivered before the Luther Research Congress. Most are in German, but among the English contributions of particular interest are “Luther and Melanchthon” by Wilhelm Pauck, in which the inseparability of the two theologians’ works is clearly demonstrated, and “Melanchthon in America” by Theodore G. Tappert, which explores the revival of interest in Melanchthon during the first half of the nineteenth century in the United States.

Wengert, Timothy J. Human Freedom, Christian Righteousness: Philip Melanchthon’s Exegetical Dispute with Erasmus of Rotterdam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Argues against the common view that Melanchthon was sympathetic to Erasmus in his dispute against Luther. Explores Melanchthon’s Humanist theology in relation to issues such as free will, divine vs. human righteousness, and the proper biblical interpretation of political order. Includes bibliographic references and index.

Wilson, George. Philip Melanchthon: 1497-1560. London: Religious Tract Society, 1897. Published after the death of its author, this brief biographical work is a more personal memoir than the volumes by Manschreck and Richard. Wilson had planned a much more complete work on Melanchthon than this but did not live to finish it.