Pieter Bruegel, the Elder

Dutch-Flemish painter

• Born: c. 1525
• Birthplace: In or near Breda, Brabant (now in the Netherlands)
• Died: September 5, 1569
• Place of death: Brussels (now in Belgium)

In an era dominated by portraiture, Bruegel teamed his subjects with their larger environment, greatly elevating landscape art. Bruegel’s miniaturist style also chronicled everyday life in sixteenth century Flanders.

Early Life

Pieter Bruegel (PAY-tur BROY-gehl), called the Elder, hailed from the Brabant region, the Dutch-Flemish countryside that straddles the southern part of the Netherlands and northern Belgium. Little can be ascertained about his early life, or when and where it exactly began. Although 1525 is often cited as the year of Bruegel’s birth, scholars have hypothesized various dates ranging from 1520 to 1530.

When the artist arrived in Antwerp to commence his career, he was listed as Peeter Brueghels. Since country-born Flemings often lacked surnames, one near-contemporary, the early seventeenth century biographer Carel van Mander, states that the artist adopted “Bruegel” or “Brueghels” from his place of birth. Other scholars speculate that it was a family name, although such a nomenclature often was preceded by “van.” The artist’s origin also remains unclear. Three Flemish towns bore some form of the name Bruegel, and at least the same number of families shared the appellation. Since two of the towns are close together, near the city of Brée in modern Belgium, this area frequently has been cited as Bruegel’s birthplace.

Excepting the folktales that come from each of the artist’s alleged hometowns, his biography begins in 1545, when he first apprenticed with Pieter Coecke van Aelst, a successful painter, architect, and ornamental/tapestry designer. Bruegel’s master maintained operations in both Brussels and Antwerp, and he subscribed to the Italian Renaissance style then dominating art. It remains difficult to trace Bruegel’s creative evolution during his apprenticeship because guild rules dictated that students could not sign or sell any of their work; they were totally under the direction of the masters. Yet some very tangible benefits resulted from Bruegel’s association with Coecke. The master’s wife, Mayken Verhulst, was a talented miniaturist who may have imparted some of her skills to Bruegel. The apprentice also married the Coeckes’ daughter, Mayken, some years later, in 1563. After the death of both Bruegels, Mayken Verhulst instructed the couple’s young, artistic sons, Pieter and Jan.

Life’s Work

Coecke’s sudden demise in December, 1550, led his apprentice Bruegel to Hieronymus Cock, a copper-plate engraver who became less known for his personal artistry than for a rare ability to capitalize on the spirit of the day. Antwerp at mid-century was Europe’s most active commercial center, attracting traders from all over the Continent and spawning a cosmopolitan, consumer-oriented existence. Art proved to be a major beneficiary of the economic climate. Realizing the public’s increasing desire for affordable creations, Cock opened the Four Winds publishing house. The owner/entrepreneur successfully marketed prints of popular artists, such as Hieronymus Bosch, and used a broader approach to fulfill the demand for art: Cock engaged young, local talents to execute new works.

Bruegel thus arrived at Four Winds. Within several months, he became a master in the Antwerp chapter of the Guild of St. Luke, a brotherhood including painters, graphic artists, ornamental and interior designers, glass-workers, and others. Most craftspersons of the era proved to be extremely versatile. Bruegel himself was to draw and paint in oils; he also skillfully engraved at least one of his own works, though print-related processes usually were reserved for other craftspersons.

One advantage of Bruegel’s association with the publisher Cock was that his employer dispatched him to Italy in 1552, possibly in search of new subject matter or because the trip might yield popular Italian-style art. During the journey, Bruegel witnessed the burning of the Calabrian seaport, Reggio, by Süleyman’s Turks. The scene is later documented in Sea Battle in the Straits of Messina , Bruegel’s only real historic painting.

Besides the exposure to Italy which inspired several seascapes the artist gained much from his trip across the Alps. Mountain vistas often appear in his work, with results that never could have been attained had he not ventured forth from the Flemish flatlands. It also is said that Bruegel acquired a new perspective: His paintings frequently seem to be executed from a higher ground, looking down. This approach, perhaps a manifestation of his Alpine travels, was rather uncommon during the mid-1500’s.

Returning to Antwerp in 1553, Bruegel continued his employment with Four Winds, creating drawings largely for public consumption. Some of his earlier works, such as the Seven Deadly Sins series (1556-1557), show elements of fantasy. Scholars thus debate whether Bruegel was creatively motivated by Bosch or whether he imitated the established artist to satisfy public demand. Many factors may explain Bruegel’s attraction to fantasy: a possible escape from politics, particularly Catholic Spain’s harsh rule over the Reformist-leaning Low Countries; the superstition and magical beliefs that sometimes dominated daily life; or the artist’s inclination toward social commentary and satire. Yet, as one expert notes, Bruegel rendered The Temptation of Saint Anthony without signing it. A previous Bosch engraving bore the same title and a similar style. Commercial factors therefore could have prevailed in some of Bruegel’s earlier drawings.

Although association with the publishing firm perhaps muted the artist’s powers of self-expression (at least through 1557), the connection served him well in other ways. Four Winds, complete with coffeehouse, became an intellectual center and mecca for art dealers. The atmosphere netted Bruegel excellent contacts, including a string of patrons who supported his best-known work the oil paintings created from 1557 until the end of his life.

The biographer van Mander describes Bruegel’s steadfast friendship with one patron, Hans Franckert: With Franckert, Bruegel often went out into the country to see the peasants at their fairs and weddings.

Disguised as peasants they brought gifts like the other guests, claiming relationship or kinship with the bride or groom. Here Bruegel delighted in observing the droll behavior of the peasants, how they ate, danced, drank, capered or made love.

Perhaps the artist derives his greatest renown from these so-called rustic scenes. Combining peasant life with miniaturist technique, he produced his acclaimed The Blue Cloak in 1559. The painting illustrates anywhere from seventy-five to one hundred sayings common during the sixteenth century. Some, such as a variation on the “he speaks from both sides of his mouth” theme, continue to be used. The Battle Between Carnival and Lent (1559) and Children’s Games (1560) give further substance to this Bruegelian genre. The two paintings reveal literally hundreds of adults and youths, respectively, having fun. Given the abundant activity and immense cast of characters illustrated, it is interesting to note that each of the three works measures only about four feet by five feet.

Later paintings concentrate more on smaller-scale activities. Peasant Wedding (1568) and Peasant Dance (1568) are well-known examples of Bruegel’s ability to make the everyday, bucolic lifestyle of sixteenth century Flanders accessible to modern viewers. Parable of the Blind (1568) and The Cripples (1568) hold additional virtues. With its theme of “the blind leading the blind,” the former painting depicts six men, each suffering from a different form of eye disease. Similarly, The Cripples shows various implements used by the era’s disabled. These subjects also sport foxtails, a sign of the Beggars, a political order seeking independence from Spain.

Indeed, scholars debate the level of sociopolitical commentary found in Bruegel’s work. Some say that he moved from Antwerp to Brussels in 1563 partly to escape the volatile atmosphere pervading the port city. The primary reason for the relocation, however, remains simple: marriage. According to van Mander, Bruegel was permitted to marry Mayken Coecke only on the condition that he move to Brussels. The artist had previously been living with a servant girl, and apparently his new family wanted him to forget the relationship.

Subsequent to his marriage and move, Bruegel became a more prolific painter, perhaps because of his distance from the commercial lure of Four Winds. His work included landscapes populated by lively peasants, as well as biblical scenes. Some of the religious themes, however, may have masked political intentions. Soldiers garbed in sixteenth century regalia, marching through Alpine paths and snowy fields far from the Holy Land, dominate The Road to Calvary (1564) and The Massacre of the Innocents (1566). Artists of the era sometimes placed historical figures in contemporary surroundings, but Bruegel’s inspiration remains subject to speculation. With orders from King Philip II of Spain, the duke of Alva raised about fifteen thousand soldiers to invade the Low Countries during the mid-1560’s, just as Bruegel executed his somber themes.

Arguments about Bruegel’s politics notwithstanding, the last years of his short life proved to be the most successful. A wealthy patron, Niclaes Jonghelinck, offered the artist his first commission: a series of six “seasons” paintings to be used for the decoration of a mansion. Out of this endeavor came Hunters in the Snow (1565), perhaps Bruegel’s finest work. Public recognition soon followed. Shortly after 1569 commenced, the Brussels city council advanced the artist money for a series of paintings commemorating the opening of a new canal. The paintings remained unfinished: Bruegel died on September 5, 1569.

Significance

Bruegel left behind approximately 150 drawings, 50 oil paintings, various prints, and a legacy: his two sons, Pieter, the Younger (1564-1638) and Jan (1568-1625). His namesake largely became known as an imitator of his father’s work; Jan, however, helped to usher in a new creative era with his elaborate, Baroque nature subjects. Nicknamed velvet Brueghel (both sons reinstated the “h” in their family nomenclature), he also developed a lifelong friendship and collaborated with one of the era’s most outstanding painters, Peter Paul Rubens . The Bruegel art dynasty, in fact, survived for about two hundred years.

The reputation of Pieter, the Elder, outlived him, too, but not by more than a few decades. Changing trends some spawned by the heated political events occurring during the mid-1500’s rendered his work unfashionable. Interest in Bruegel resurfaced only at the dawn of the twentieth century, with the very first exhibit of the artist’s work in 1902. Perhaps nostalgia for a diminishing peasant lifestyle fostered this revival. Surely one of Bruegel’s major contributions was in replacing elite faces with those of the rural lower classes. Yet, while Bruegel painted people, he refused to confine himself to the then-dominant portraiture. His crowded street scenes depict not so much individuals as they do the social landscape. Bruegel also forced his vibrant peasants to share attention with the wheat-covered fields and steep Alpine paths that offered the essence of human activity.

Bibliography

Delevoy, Robert L. Bruegel. Translated by Stuart Gilbert. Lausanne, Switzerland: Éditions d’Art Albert Skira, 1959. Using an advanced approach, this book explores Bruegel’s artistic techniques as well as the content of his work. A biographical chapter debates various theories about the artist’s life. Also included are an extensive bibliography, a list of major Bruegel exhibitions, translated documents, and color plates.

Denis, Valentin, ed. All the Paintings of Pieter Bruegel. Translated by Paul Colacicchi. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1961. A catalog of Bruegel’s works containing 160 plates, this volume cites lost paintings and those which may not have been created by the artist. An introductory chapter presents Bruegel as one who withstood prevalent artistic influences and only gradually introduced his concepts into the mainstream. Also featured are selected criticism, biographical notes (timeline), and a brief bibliography.

Foote, Timothy. The World of Bruegel c. 1525-1569. New York: Time-Life Books, 1968. Portrays the artist as an innovator who, nevertheless, reflected rather than attempted to comment on social conditions. Also explores Bruegel’s predecessors, peers, and successors; contemporary artistic trends; and the politics and religious attitudes of the sixteenth century. Contains a bibliography, a listing of other European masters, and both color and black-and-white plates.

Glück, Gustav. Peter Brueghel, the Elder. New York: George Braziller, 1936. Reprint. London: Thomas and Hudson, 1958. Depicts Bruegel as having been a nonjudgmental, realistic painter of a chaotic world. Emphasizes the master’s artistic progression and increasing ability to convey nature accurately. Glück also argues that Bruegel defined later genres of Dutch painting. This oversize book features forty-nine superb color plates and a bibliography.

Kavaler, Ethan Matt. Pieter Bruegel: Parables of Order and Enterprise. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Argues that Bruegel used images taken from popular fables to advocate traditional values and cultural stability and to resist the destabilization of a growing commodity culture. Includes illustrations, bibliographic references, index.

Klein, H. Arthur, and Mina C. Klein. Peter Bruegel, the Elder: Artist of Abundance. New York: Macmillan, 1968. Bruegel appears as a social critic in this general biography. Details of the artist’s environment and contemporary lifestyle are explored. Heavily illustrated in black and white, the book uses both Bruegel’s works and those of his peers. Also contains a short color section and list of American museums housing Bruegel paintings.

Roberts-Jones, Philippe, and Françoise Roberts-Jones. Pieter Bruegel. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002. Co-written by an art historian and an art restorer, this study of Bruegel includes detailed practical discussions of the physical materials and techniques that went into his paintings, as well as broad cultural interpretations of the meaning and influence of his works. Includes illustrations, maps, bibliographic references, index.

Sullivan, Margaret A. Bruegel’s Peasants: Art and Audience in the Northern Renaissance. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Examination of the cultural and philosophical import of Bruegel’s work focusing on the common background and assumptions of the artist’s intended audience, and the meanings that audience would most likely find in his work. Includes eight pages of photographic plates, illustrations, bibliographic references, index.