Powhatan
Powhatan, born Wahunsenacawh around 1550, was the prominent leader of a confederation of Algonquian tribes in what is now Virginia. He became a sachem after inheriting six tribes and expanded his authority to include approximately thirty, fostering political and economic stability among them. His rule stretched across much of tidewater Virginia, encompassing various tribes such as the Pamunkey and Chickahominy. Powhatan is often noted for his diplomacy, particularly in his interactions with the English colonists, including Captain John Smith. Despite initial goodwill and attempts at peaceful coexistence, he faced numerous challenges from the encroaching settlers, who disrupted his people's way of life. Powhatan's strategies included forming alliances and leveraging trade to secure his people's interests, while also navigating the complexities of colonial politics. His daughter Pocahontas played a significant role in mediating between the English settlers and Powhatan's tribes, culminating in a brief period of peace known as the Peace of Pocahontas. Powhatan's legacy is marked by his efforts to unify and protect his people during a time of significant cultural conflict and change.
Powhatan
Ruler
- Born: c. 1550
- Birthplace: Powhata (near present-day Richmond, Virginia)
- Died: April 1, 1618
- Place of death: Powhata, near Richmond, Virginia
Chief of the Powhatan Confederacy (r. late sixteenth century-1618)
Though better known as the father of the Indian princess Pocahontas, Powhatan made significant contributions to the English settlement in North America. Through his prudent leadership and goodwill, Powhatan provided the basis for a peaceful coexistence between the Indians and the English, which ultimately enabled Jamestown, the first English colony in America, to thrive and expand.
Areas of achievement: Government and politics, diplomacy
Early Life
Powhatan (pow-HAT-n) was born around the year 1550, but his exact birth date is still in question. It has been documented that Powhatan was of foreign extraction, that his father had come from the West Indies because he had been driven from there by the Spaniards. His given name was Wahunsenacawh, but he came to be called Powhatan for the name of one of the tribes that was later to come under his rule. It is known that Powhatan had at least two brothers: Opechancanough, who later became chief of one of Powhatan’s most important tribes, the Pamunkeys, and who was the most formidable enemy of the English after Powhatan’s death, and Opitchapan, who succeeded Powhatan.
Unfortunately, virtually nothing has been recorded about Powhatan’s early childhood. When he was a young man, he inherited six tribes, thus becoming a chief, or sachem. By force or threat of force, he expanded his reign to include thirty tribes. Powhatan’s geographical jurisdiction encompassed most of tidewater Virginia. It began on the south side of the James River, extended northward to the Potomac, and stretched to include two tribes of the lower Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay. In addition to the tribe from which he took his name, he controlled the Pamunkey, the Chickahominy, and the Potomac tribes. He and his people belonged to the Algonquian-speaking family which occupied the coastal areas from upper Carolina to New England and beyond. It has been estimated that Powhatan had a population of between eight thousand and nine thousand under his rule.
Powhatan’s portrait, as documented by those with whom he had frequent contact, certainly mirrors his status. Early written records state that he was tall, stately, and well proportioned. Although he was perceived as having a sour look, his overall countenance was described as majestic and grave. Powhatan possessed fabulous robes of costly skins and feather capes. His love for ornamentation was evident from the fact that he was always bejeweled with long chains of pearls and beads. Powhatan has been described as wily and crafty. The English described him as possessing a subtle intelligence, and they had great respect for him.
Powhatan’s principal residence was set deep in a thicket of woods in the village of Werowocomoco, on the York River not far from Jamestown. It was approximately fifty to sixty yards in length and was guarded by four decorative sentries: a dragon, a bear, a leopard, and a giant man. In typical kingly fashion, he enjoyed sitting on a throne of mats approximately one foot high. He was flanked on either side by his current favorite women. His chief men sat along each side of the house, and behind them sat many women. All were adorned with jewelry, ornaments, and paint.
Powhatan’s status as sachem brought with it many privileges, one of which was having many wives and, as a result, many children. He selected his favorite women to bear him children and, after they did so, they were free to leave and marry again. One of these women bore him the most loved and most famous of his daughters, Pocahontas. It was through her that Powhatan became personally involved with the first English colony in America in 1607 and ultimately decided its destiny.
Life’s Work
Powhatan’s main goal as sachem of such a large number of tribes was to create unity and foster harmony among them. It was under his firm guidance that the largest Algonquian group had been consolidated. Once this was accomplished, their strength and prosperity was evident.
Powhatan’s people enjoyed political, economic, and artistic stability and prosperity under his domain. Although Powhatan’s tactics may be deemed despotic, his political system offered protection for its people against their numerous and varied foes. The economy was a relatively sophisticated one. Three crops of Indian corn were cultivated each year. Tobacco was also grown. Their foodstuffs were richly supplemented by hunting and fishing, which were carried out in an organized, communal fashion and manifested the tribes’ common goals and sense of unity. Together, the Indians hunted wild turkey, beaver, and deer, which not only reinforced their food supply but also provided them with important items for clothing and tools. For fishing, they deftly employed equipment such as the weir, net, fishhook, spear, and arrow. Their canoes were fashioned from a single log and had the capacity to carry approximately forty men. Their implements showed a high level of sophistication and were quite comparable in form and function to those of their English counterparts, except that they were not made of metal. There was also a high degree of sophistication in arts and crafts, especially pottery and basketry. They fashioned their own pipes, in which they smoked the tobacco they grew. They also created musical instruments from reeds, with which they participated in various ceremonial rites.
With the arrival of the English, Powhatan’s main goal was to continue the peace, prosperity, and strength of his people. This was based on the naïve assumption that it would be possible for the two groups to coexist peacefully and that neither would prosper by the extinction of the other. Hence, Powhatan’s wisdom, wiles, and capacity for negotiation were put to the test. In spite of the many trials and tribulations he suffered during this period, Powhatan never wavered from this goal. He was firmly committed to his people and instinctively sought to guard against any disruptive temptations presented by the English. He continued to rule with the same common sense with which he built his empire and to espouse a humane philosophy and sense of statecraft.
Powhatan, however, initially sensed danger from the English. They were on his land, destroying it to build homes, hunting his animals, cultivating his soil, chopping his trees, and eating his fish. Furthermore, they possessed weaponry that was far more sophisticated than that of the Indians. When Powhatan first met the English Captain John Smith, his keen instincts and political acumen told him that he was being deceived. Thus, he decided that Smith should be put to death. At the last minute, however, Pocahontas intervened, and the Englishman’s life was spared.
The first tactic that Powhatan used in dealing with Smith and the English was that of trading. He sent a generous quantity of badly needed food to the starving colonists and, in return, demanded cannons, muskets, and a millstone for grinding corn. Although Powhatan’s subjects were more numerous and more cohesive than the colonists, he wished to fortify them with sophisticated English weaponry for protection against any surprise attacks. Smith returned to Jamestown a free man, laden with food supplies, only to break his bargain with Powhatan by sending him bells, beads, and mirrors instead of the items he requested.
Powhatan felt deceived and so refused the next request for food. His response was met with a threat from Smith’s pistol and the raised muskets of his men. Powhatan became openly angry but knew that bows and arrows were no match for guns. The Indians became resentful and stole tools and weapons, and occasional outbreaks of fighting ensued. The English knew, however, that the success of their colony depended on Powhatan’s goodwill, generosity, and humanitarianism, and they tried to appease him and win him over with pardons and gifts.
Powhatan, however, had already been twice deceived, was always on the alert, and adopted a wait-and-see stance. He recognized, resisted, and outwitted all attempts to subjugate him or his people. For example, when Powhatan was asked to participate in a coronation ceremony that would make him a subject of the English king, he became defiant. He did not see the wisdom or the logic of one king serving another king. He did, however, accept all the gifts that were presented to him. These included a huge bed, a red silk cape, and a copper crown. The English, for their part, continued to try to use the Indians while biding their time to build up strength with supplies from England. They never invited Powhatan to visit their colony and, even when they were in desperate need of food, they requested a lesser amount than was actually needed. Powhatan was one step ahead of them, though, and not only decided to charge them more for the corn but also demanded that they build him an English-style house modeled after the largest standing structure of the time. The English had no choice.
When Powhatan realized that Captain Smith was never going to trade his weapons, he made a deal with Captain Christopher Newport, who was not on friendly terms with Smith. They traded twenty wild turkeys for twenty swords. The result was doubly favorable for Powhatan: It created further demoralization and internal strife among the members of the Jamestown community, while at the same time it strengthened and fortified the unity of Powhatan’s people. Powhatan’s humanitarian side, however, prevailed on most occasions. For example, when a fire destroyed the Jamestown warehouse that contained the colonists’ food, Powhatan sent not only food but also his daughter Pocahontas, to serve as ambassador.
When Pocahontas was kidnapped by an English captain and one of the ransom demands was the return of all captured prisoners and pilfered guns, Powhatan again reacted in a shrewd manner. Although Pocahontas was known to be his favorite daughter and he had often said that she was as dear to him as his own life, he knew that the English had always been her friends and would never harm her. He blessed her impending marriage to John Rolfe, promised friendship, sent two of his sons to attend the wedding bearing many gifts, and returned the prisoners—but never the guns.
This act began an era of peace between the Indians and the English known as the Peace of Pocahontas, which lasted until the time of Powhatan’s death in 1618. The sachem had achieved his goal without compromising his personal dignity or jeopardizing the strength and peace of his tribes.
Significance
Powhatan’s rule provided his numerous tribes with peace, protection, and prosperity. These vast numbers of people succeeded in forming a binding alliance and uniting against common foes.
Internally, they were prudent and resourceful. They knew their land well and cultivated it with care. Their agricultural system assured them of bountiful harvests, and excess food supplies were always in abundance for emergency use. It was Powhatan himself, in fact, who presented Captain Smith with baskets of corn kernels and even provided him with planting instructions. This act of generosity and goodwill not only prevented famine in the Jamestown colony during its first winter season but also once again attested Powhatan’s good faith and humanitarian nature.
There are many theories as to why Powhatan allowed the Jamestown colony to survive. Given the large numbers of people under his rule, it is quite obvious that, had he so wished, he could have easily destroyed the colony in spite of its superior weaponry. He had no apparent reason to do so, however, and perhaps he thought that fair play and a cautious approach in his relations with the English could be mutually advantageous.
The English colony never posed a real threat to Powhatan from the initial landing in the spring of 1607. It was composed of a group of quarrelsome, power-hungry men who were incapable of unifying their small group. Their rate of growth was virtually nil; Powhatan had no forewarning of future events. There were only 350 people in the colony at the time of Powhatan’s death. Since its founding, the colonists there had suffered such grave misfortunes that it was only with Powhatan’s help that they had survived; he, in turn, reasoned that the English could help him. Their sophisticated weaponry not only would facilitate daily chores such as hunting but also would provide his people with better protection against their foes and further reinforce his own authority. This interdependence would have the potential to lead to an alliance if such a situation presented itself.
The deceit and double-crossing exchanged between the two sides was probably the normal politicking of two very astute leaders. Powhatan’s tactic was to outwit the English, punish them at every opportunity, and deny them the opportunity to retaliate. It should be noted, however, that although Powhatan was often a victim of English deceit, he never allowed these discrepancies to interfere with the formation of a long-lasting peace treaty. It is highly doubtful that he allowed sentimental considerations to interfere with his political decisions. Although there is no denying that Powhatan loved Pocahontas, he also knew that her ability to deal with the English could prove fruitful to him; thus, he sent her to negotiate the return of the Indian prisoners in the Jamestown camp. He knew that Smith would yield to Pocahontas what he would yield to no one else. By appointing her as his ambassador, he was able to plant the seeds of friendship between the Old World and the New World.
Further Reading
Andrews, Matthew Page. The Soul of a Nation. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1943. Concentrates on the founding of Virginia and the projection of New England. Emphasizes the need for a fresh appraisal of American beginnings. Powhatan and his relationships with Captain Smith and Captain Newport are discussed.
Chatterton, E. K. Captain John Smith. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1929. Focuses on the early life of Smith, the formation of his character, his spirit of adventure, and his place in history. Details his meetings and dealings with Powhatan and Pocahontas, and provides insight into his respect and sympathy for Powhatan.
Craven, Wesley Frank. White, Red, and Black: The Seventeenth Century Virginian. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1971. Reprint. New York: Norton, 1977. Chronicles the history of the white, Indian, and African black in the early history of Virginia. Emphasizes Powhatan’s organizational skills and strong leadership in contrast to the disorganization, lack of leadership, and internal strife of Jamestown.
Fishwick, Marshall W. Jamestown: First English Colony. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. The best book on the daily life and customs of the Indians. Discusses all aspects of Powhatan, his tribes, and their dealings with the English.
Gerson, Noel B. The Glorious Scoundrel: A Biography of Captain John Smith. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1978. Discusses John Smith’s life and ambitions, his role of leadership in the colony, and his diplomatic dealings with Powhatan. It was through his sensitivity that Powhatan was able to be appeased and won over.
Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan’s World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Gleach outlines the cultural differences between the Powhatans and the British colonists.
Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechancanough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2005. Rountree examines the impact of colonization upon Powhatan, his daughter Pocahontas, and his brother Opechancanough.
Rountree, Helen C., and E. Randolph Turner, III. Before and After Jamestown: Virginia’s Powhatans and Their Predecessors. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002. A comprehensive history of the Powhatans, from their earliest contact with non-Native Americans to the present. Includes a chapter discussing the Jamestown colony from the Powhatan perspective.
Townsend, Camilla. Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma. New York: Hill and Wang, 2004. Townsend depicts Pocahontas and her father, Powhatan, not as naïve or innocent, but as people who were able to confront British colonists with sophistication, diplomacy, and violence.
Williamson, Margaret Holmes. Powhatan Lords of Life and Death: Command and Consent in Seventeenth-Century Virginia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Anthropologist Williamson focuses on Powhatan’s life and the administration of his realm.
Willison, George F. Behold Virginia: The Fifth Crown. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1951. Provides an overview of the early history of Virginia. Powhatan is discussed in terms of his humanitarianism: accepting and aiding the settlers during their times of need. Many of the English plots to subvert him are exposed.