Race riots of the twentieth century

Significance: Race riots both threaten the stability of society and, by their very occurrence, call into question the fundamental fairness of society.

Referring to racial violence in the United States as “race riots” is often misleading. Many race riots were actually one-sided white massacres of African Americans; this was particularly true of those prior to 1921. Nineteent-century race riots were often called “slave revolts” or “slave insurrections.” These slave revolts were most frequent in the areas of the South where African Americans constituted at least 40 percent of the population. Fearing that slave revolts in one part of the South would trigger similar revolts throughout the South, slaveholders quelled such rebellions quickly and viciously.

Twentieth-century race riots differ from nineteenth-century riots in both motive and location. Whereas nineteenth-century riots were primarily concerned with maintaining the institution of slavery, twentieth-century riots—particularly those in the years before World War II—were often designed to maintain white supremacy over urban African Americans. Also, where nineteenth-century race riots were almost exclusively a southern phenomenon, twentieth-century race riots took place in almost every major urban area of America.

1900–1945

Race riots prior to World War II often followed a consistent pattern. In almost all cases, the riots were initiated by whites against African Americans. In only two of the major riots— Harlem, New York, in 1935 and again in 1943—did African Americans initiate the riots. Second, most riots were caused by a white fear of African Americans competing for jobs that previously were held by whites. The rapid movement of African Americans from the South to the urban industrial areas of the North contributed to this fear. Third, most riots took place during the hot and humid summer months when young people were out of school. Finally, the riots were often fueled by rumors—allegations of police brutality against African Americans or allegations of black violence against whites heightened racial tensions.

One of the major race riots during this period occurred in East St. Louis, Illinois, in 1917. An automobile occupied by four whites drove through black areas firing shots. When a similar car was seen, African Americans opened fire and killed two occupants, both of whom were police officers. Whites invaded the black community, burning three hundred homes and killing fifty African Americans. The summer of 1919 saw twenty riots in communities such as Charleston, South Carolina; Washington, DC; Knoxville, Tennessee; and Chicago. The riots of 1919 were so bloody that the period was called the “Red Summer.”

Post–World War II Riots

Although post–World War II riots were fueled by rumor and also took place during the summer months, they differed from pre–World War II riots in two important ways. First, a majority of the riots were initiated by African Americans, not whites. Second, many of the post–World War II riots were not confined to the black community. In several cases, whites were singled out as victims of black violence.

The race riots of the 1960s threatened to destroy the fabric of American society. The 1964 Harlem riot in New York City and the 1965 Watts riot in Los Angeles were both triggered by police incidents. The Watts riot lasted six days and resulted in thirty-four deaths and four thousand arrests. “Burn, baby, burn” became a battle cry in black ghettos throughout the United States.

The year 1967 brought major riots to Newark, New Jersey, and to Tampa, Cincinnati, Atlanta, and Detroit. Newark’s riot was the most severe, resulting in twenty-six deaths and $30 million in property damage. The assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4, 1968, triggered racial violence in more than one hundred cities. In response to the urban racial violence, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, better known as the Kerner Commission. After investigating the causes of the rioting the commission presented a series of recommendations. According to the Kerner Commission, the most important grievances of the black community were police practices, lack of employment opportunities, and inadequate housing. The ominous conclusion of the Kerner Commission was that unless the causes of urban violence were addressed, the United States would continue to become two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal.

1980s and 1990s

Although there was a lull in race riots during the 1970s, the Miami riots in May of 1980 signaled a renewal of urban racial unrest. On December 17, 1979, a black insurance agent, Arthur McDuffie, was stopped by Miami police officers after a high-speed chase. A fight ensued, and McDuffie was beaten to death. The police officers engaged in a cover-up and reported that McDuffie died as a result of a motorcycle crash. When the cover-up unraveled, five Miami police officers were arrested. Four were charged with manslaughter, and one was charged with tampering with evidence. After deliberating less than three hours, an all-white jury found all defendants not guilty. Within hours of the verdict, the Liberty City section of Miami exploded in violence. Before order was restored three days later, eighteen people were dead, including eight whites who had the misfortune to be driving through Liberty City when the riot began.

The riot that took place in Los Angeles in May of 1992 was triggered by a similar event. Almost immediately after four white police officers were acquitted of assault in the videotaped beating of Rodney King, a black man, one of the most violent race riots in American history broke out. Before it was over, more than sixty people had died, more than four thousand fires had been set, and Los Angeles had suffered property damage totaling more than a billion dollars.

Although the patterns of racial violence may have altered over the decades, the fact remains that race riots continue to occur. Once a southern phenomenon, they have become a national problem in search of a solution.

Bibliography

Button, James W. Black Violence: Political Impact of the 1960’s Riots. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1978. Print.

Connery, Robert, ed. Urban Riots. New York: Vintage, 1969. Print.

Darden, Joe T., and Richard Walter Thomas. Detroit: Race Riots, Racial Conflicts, and Efforts to Bridge the Racial Divide. East Lansing: Michigan State UP, 2013. Print.

Porter, Bruce, and Marvin Dunn. The Miami Riot of 1980. Lexington: Lexington, 1984. Print.

Rudwick, Elliott. Race Riot at East St. Louis. New York: Atheneum, 1972. Print.

US Riot Commission. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. New York: Bantam, 1968. Print.