Russian Civil War of 1918–1921
The Russian Civil War (1918–1921) was a significant conflict that arose in the aftermath of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, which toppled the Russian monarchy. Following the abdication of Czar Nicholas II and the establishment of a provisional government, dissatisfaction grew as the new regime continued to pursue World War I, leading to economic turmoil and food shortages. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power but faced opposition from a diverse coalition known as the "Whites," which included former czarist forces and other anti-Bolshevik groups. This civil war saw notable foreign intervention from Allied powers, including Great Britain, France, and the United States, who aimed to counter the Bolshevik regime and support the White Army.
Initially, the White forces achieved some territorial gains, yet the Red Army, under Leon Trotsky, proved increasingly effective in military strategy and organization. By late 1919, the Bolsheviks had gained the upper hand, leading to the retreat of White forces. The conflict resulted in immense casualties, with around 7 million deaths, and by 1921, the Bolsheviks had secured control over Russia. The repercussions of the civil war set the foundation for the establishment of a communist state that would endure for the next seven decades.
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Russian Civil War of 1918–1921
At issue: Bolshevik (communist) control of Russia
Date: January, 1918-March, 1921
Location: Russia
Combatants: Bolsheviks vs. White forces and various foreign powers
Principal commanders:Bolsheviks (Reds), Semyon Mikhaylovich Budenny (1883–1973), Mikhail Tukhachevsky (1893–1937), Leon Trotsky (1879–1940); Whites, Anton Ivanovich Denikin (1872–1947), Nikolai Nikolaevich Iudenich, (1862–1933), Aleksandr Kolchak (1874–1920)
Principal battles: Siberia, Kazan, Simbirsk, Tsaritsyn, Orel, Petrograd
Result: Bolshevik victory and establishment of communist dictatorship under Vladimir Ilich Lenin
Background
The Romanov monarchy of Russia had been in serious decline since the early 1900’s. The downfall of Czar Nicholas II came in February, 1917. As the czar continued to pursue an elusive victory in World War I, the Russian economy faltered and food shortages engulfed major urban areas. A provisional government replaced the discredited czarist autocracy for some months, but the new regime continued the czar’s ill-fated policies of warfare and hesitant reform.
Cognizant of the Russian people’s growing impatience, Vladimir Ilich Lenin and his Bolsheviks struck on November 7, 1917, staging a successful coup against the provisional government. Thereafter, the Bolsheviks quickly abolished the Russian senate and organs of local self-government, while assembling various institutions to extend communist control over the Russian Empire. One of these institutions, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission to Combat Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (the Cheka) was established less than one month later and was given authority to use terrorist measures against the growing list of Bolshevik enemies.
With the dissolution of the constituent assembly, on January 9, 1918, Bolshevik dominance of Russia’s state institutions became complete. The arrival of this communist dictatorship caused forces within and without Russia to consider armed opposition against the new government.
Inside Russia, a motley group of oppositional forces that were united only in their opposition to Bolshevik rule in Russia were termed the “Whites.” White opposition began to form first in the south of Russia, in the Don Cossack region, in 1918. Eventually, the leader of this southern White Volunteer Army was Anton Ivanovich Denikin.
From without, the White oppositionists would be aided by czarist Russia’s former wartime allies. Great Britain, France, and the United States felt betrayed by Russia’s new Bolshevik leadership, which had withdrawn from World War I in March, 1918. Hence, the Allies’ efforts to support the White forces in the looming civil war were motivated by the desire to both encourage Russia to reenter the war effort against Germany, as well as to rid the world of the perceived rising communist menace.
Action
At first, the White forces claimed some surprising victories in 1918 and early 1919.
The Czech Legion’s conquest of western Siberia (1918) allowed Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak to score significant gains in Siberia. In the Ukraine, General Denikin’s Armed Forces of South Russia were initially successful in driving back Red forces to within 300 miles of Moscow. Kolchak’s attempts in mid-1919 to link up his forces with those of Denikin’s southern army along the Volga River were foiled by determined Bolshevik resistance. In northwestern Russia, General Nikolai Nikolaevich Iudenich headed a combined White and Estonian army toward Russia’s second largest city, Petrograd. By October, 1919, Iudenich was poised to take Petrograd, the birthplace of the Bolshevik Revolution.
As time wore on, the military preparedness and efficiency of Leon Trotsky’s Red Army, under leaders such as Semyon Mikhaylovich Budenny and Mikhail Tukhachevsky, grew. White victories were reversed in the east at Kazan (1919), Simbirsk (1919), and Perm; in the south at Tsaritsyn (1919) and Orel (1919); and in the north at Pulkovo Heights and Petrograd (1919). By the end of 1919, the Whites were in full retreat in most regions of the country.
Foreign intervention in the Russian Civil War began in the spring of 1918. The first Allied intervention came in March, 1918, when Great Britain, France, and the United States landed troops at Murmansk and Archangelsk, in the north of Russia. Japanese and U.S. troops later landed in Russia’s Far East (at Vladivostok) in August, 1918. Each of these detachments was sent to protect Allied war supplies located at these points and to provide support for the Czech Legion’s escape.
The Czech Legion had assisted the imperial Russian army during World War I and, after the Russian army’s disintegration, was attempting to travel to the western front to assist the Allies in their war against Germany. Along the way, the Czech Legion ran afoul of Bolshevik authorities in western Siberia and began to assist the White forces of Admiral Kolchak, holding the Trans-Siberian Railroad and various adjoining cities for some time.
In the autumn of 1918, supplementary detachments of French and British naval forces intervened in the Black Sea and the Baltic areas. Overall, the most significant assistance was provided by the British, as they aided White military campaigns along the Baltic coast and in the Crimea. Moreover, British forces from Persia occupied significant portions of the Russian Transcaucasus. As Bolshevik forces succeeded in conquering White armies, the Allied troops were soon evacuated from Russia.
The reasons for the ultimate Bolshevik victory were many. The Bolsheviks controlled the heartland of Russia and its superior transportation and communications infrastructure. In contrast, the White forces controlled peripheral regions of Russia, thereby making coordination among the various White armies extremely difficult. In addition, the Whites were less successful than the Bolsheviks in obtaining the support of the populace in the areas they controlled. White leaders were careless in not couching their Russian nationalist ideals in more acceptable language when attempting to gain the support of non-Russian nationalities in areas under their control. Moreover, the Bolsheviks used the Allied intervention as a convenient, successful propaganda tool against the White forces. Furthermore, the ineptness of many White military leaders was legion, whereas the efficiency of the Red Army under Commissar of War Leon Trotsky was legendary. Last and perhaps of major significance was the simple fact that the Bolsheviks were more brutal in their conduct of the war than were their opponents.
Aftermath
By the spring of 1921, the Bolsheviks had destroyed the White forces in Russia and caused the withdrawal of most Allied forces from Russian soil. Lenin’s Bolsheviks then turned their attention to reconquering non-Russian areas of the former empire and suppressing with vigor various military and peasant revolts within the heartland of Russia. A total of 7 million deaths resulted from the Russian Civil War. The Bolsheviks would control Russia for the next seventy years.
Bibliography
Lincoln, W. Bruce. Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989.
MacKenzie, David, and Michael W. Curran. Russia and the U.S.S.R. in the Twentieth Century. 3d ed. New York: Wadsworth, 1997.
Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia, Volume II: Since 1855. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Service, Robert. A History of Twentieth-Century Russia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Ulam, Adam B. The Bolsheviks. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998.