Sam Houston

American military leader and politician

• Born: March 2, 1793
• Birthplace: Rockbridge County, Virginia
• Died: July 26, 1863
• Place of death: Huntsville, Texas

Houston had one of the most diverse political careers in U.S. history. He served as governor of two different states, commanded the Texan army during Texas’s revolt against Mexico, was elected president of the independent Republic of Texas, and served in the U.S. Senate.

Early Life

Sam Houston—the name he always used, both formally and informally—was the son of Samuel Houston, Sr., a farmer and veteran of the American Revolution. His mother, née Elizabeth Paxton, came from pioneer stock. Young Sam was the fifth of six sons in a family that also included three daughters. He attended school intermittently until his father’s death in 1807, when his formal education ended. The widow Houston moved her family to Marysville, Tennessee, where Sam spent the remainder of his youth. For a time, he worked in the village store, although this was not to his liking. In his teenage years, he sought escape and left home on several occasions to live with the Cherokee Indians. In total, he spent almost four years with them, mastering their language, customs, and culture. The Indians accepted him as one of their own, giving him the name “Raven.” He eventually returned home to live with his family.

Houston joined the army during the War of 1812, serving with distinction at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. His personal exploits attracted the attention of General Andrew Jackson, who promoted him to the rank of lieutenant. After leaving the military in 1818, Houston studied law and became a practicing attorney at Lebanon, Tennessee. A physically large man of greater than average height, he had a powerful build graced by curly dark hair and a pleasing countenance. Known for his gregarious personality and public speaking ability, he had a dramatic air about him that made him the center of attention and an individual of great personal popularity.

Life’s Work

Houston’s neighbors in Tennessee elected him a state militia officer in 1819. During 1823, he gave up the practice of law and entered politics, securing in that year election to the U.S. Congress as a representative. Houston quickly became a leader in the Tennessee Democratic Party. He also forged a lifelong personal friendship with Andrew Jackson. Houston became the governor of Tennessee in 1827 and looked forward to a promising career in that state. He married Eliza H. Allen, daughter of a prominent Tennessee family, on January 1, 1829. Within months, Houston’s success turned to bitter failure because of problems with his bride. Although historians have never agreed on the specific causes, the marriage to Eliza lasted only a short time. She returned home to her parents (eventually securing a divorce) while Houston, with some despondency, resigned the governorship in the spring of 1829 and moved to Indian territory to start life anew. The Tennessee years became a closed chapter in his life.

Houston spent the following years among his boyhood friends, the Cherokee. He adopted Indian dress and customs, became a citizen of the Indian nation, and took a wife according to the dictates of Cherokee law. His Indian wife, Tiana, assisted him in operating a small trading post. In addition, he served as an advocate for the Cherokee in various matters before the U.S. government. By 1832, the wanderlust again struck Houston, and he began visiting Texas, although he maintained residence in the Indian nation for a time. He first arrived in the Anglo areas of Mexican Texas as an Indian agent and a representative of investors who sought land in the province. The exact date that he moved to Texas is lost in obscurity, but, by late 1833, he was taking an active part in Texas affairs as a resident. In the process, he left his life with the Cherokee, including Tiana, forever in the past.

Houston’s removal to Texas came in the midst of growing revolutionary fervor on the part of Anglo residents unhappy with Mexican rule. Houston played an important role in events that resulted in the eventual break with Mexico. He served as presiding officer of the Convention of 1833, which wrote a proposed constitution for Texas, and attended the Consultation of 1835, which marked the start of the revolution. He signed the Texas Declaration of Independence from Mexico while serving as a delegate to the Convention of 1836. The revolutionary government of Texas appointed him commander in chief of the army with the rank of major general on March 4, 1836. Forever after, in spite of the other high offices he would hold in his career, Sam Houston preferred the title “general.”

Taking command of the army at Gonzales shortly after the Alamo fell to Mexican troops commanded by Antonio López de Santa Anna , General Houston led his forces eastward across Texas in a retreat known as the “Runaway Scrape.” Potential disaster for the Texans turned to stunning victory when Houston and his men met Santa Anna’s army, which had pursued them, at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. Santa Anna was captured, his army soundly defeated, and General Houston became the hero of the day.

With independence secured, Houston won election as president of the Republic of Texas on September 5, 1836. His term saw Texas’s failure to enter the Union because of opposition in the U.S. Congress, attempts to deal with the Comanche Indians, and growing political factionalism in the republic. While president of the republic, Houston married Margaret M. Lea on May 8, 1840. They eventually had eight children, including Andrew Jackson Houston, who served a short period as United States senator from Texas during the 1930’s.

Because the republic’s constitution forbade a president from succeeding himself, Houston left office after one term. Mirabeau B. Lamar, with whom Houston had political differences, replaced him. Houston, however, won election to the republic’s congress, where pro-Houston and anti-Houston parties soon became the active political factions of the fledgling nation. Houston’s opponents objected to several of his policies, including his attempts to keep Austin from becoming the capital city; others believed that he had failed to work hard enough for statehood. Other critics no doubt found the general’s large ego and some of his personal habits objectionable, especially his frequent and heavy drinking of whiskey. Whatever the reasons for controversy, Houston would be at the center of politically motivated strife and criticism for the rest of his public career.

Houston’s reelection to the presidency of the republic in 1841 came after a heated campaign with the Lamar faction. Houston attempted to undo some of the programs of his predecessor and was faced with additional problems, including a minor, abortive Mexican invasion of Texas in 1842. He was able to deal with all these efficiently, although not always with complete success. By the end of his second term, in 1844, the annexation of Texas by the United States had become a distinct possibility. Houston, however, wavered in the face of statehood for Texas, sometimes giving the impression that he favored continuing the republic. It fell to his successor, Anson Jones, to have the distinction of serving as the last president of the Republic of Texas.

Along with Thomas J. Rusk, Houston became one of the United States senators representing Texas once statehood had been secured in 1845. He would continue to serve in that body until the eve of the Civil War. Houston continued his pre-Texas affiliation with the Democratic Party during his days in the Senate. He played a role in the debates over the Compromise of 1850, siding with southern delegates while he lobbied for an acceptable settlement to the Texas boundary controversy. He had aspirations for the Democratic Party presidential nomination in 1848 and in 1852, but in both instances he failed to attract enough delegate votes to make a showing at the convention.

Houston’s role as a leader in the southern bloc of the Senate came to an end with his vote on the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. A strong advocate of the Union, he voted with Free-Soilers and Whigs against the bill. This placed him at odds with his southern colleagues and many slaveholders in Texas, all of whom wanted the bill passed. By the mid-1850’s, Houston became increasingly distanced from the Democratic Party when he embraced the Know-Nothing movement because of his strong commitment to the preservation of the Union. He attended Know-Nothing meetings and conventions. Texas Democrats denounced him for these activities. Houston ran for the governorship of Texas in 1857 but was defeated by Hardin Runnels. He remained in the Senate until the end of his term, in 1859, whereupon he returned to Texas. He ran once more against Runnels for governor in 1859, this time winning by a small margin.

Houston’s term as governor, which began in December of 1859, proved to be a time of turmoil for Texas and a period of deep personal anguish for Houston. The election of Abraham Lincoln triggered the secession crisis and the formation of the Confederate States of America. Texas was a slave state, largely settled by persons of southern heritage, and most Texans favored secession although some preferred to remain with the Union. Houston fell into the latter camp. His commitment to the Constitution and the Union was stronger than his desire to secede.

As governor, Houston thus found himself out of step with most Texans and their political leaders. Houston refused to cooperate with the State Secession Convention that met in Austin. When the convention adopted a secession ordinance, the governor took the position that Texas had returned legally to her former status as an independent republic. He therefore refused as governor to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. The Secession Convention therefore declared the office of governor vacant and named Edward Clark to the position. Houston, refusing an offer of federal troops from President Lincoln, decided to accede to the convention’s decision and relinquished his office. He retired to Huntsville, Texas, where he died on July 26, 1863.

Significance

Sam Houston played an important role in the westward movement of the United States during the nineteenth century. As a frontiersman, military figure, and political leader, he assisted in the development of two states (Tennessee and Texas) from frontier outposts into settled areas. His greatest contributions came in Texas, where he led an army to victory, helped to organize a republic, and participated in its transition into a part of the United States. As a senator during the 1850’s, he was one of the few southern leaders to foresee the consequences of national political policies that would lead to the Civil War. Once the war came, he stood alone as the most prominent Texas Unionist willing to sacrifice his career for the preservation of the Union. It is fitting that the largest, most industrial city in Texas bears his name.

Bibliography

Bishop, Curtis Kent. Lone Star: Sam Houston. New York: Julian Messner, 1961. Written for young readers, the book provides a clear assessment of Houston’s career and relates the major facts of his life in an easy-to-read narrative.

Campbell, Randolph B. Sam Houston and the American Southwest. Edited by Oscar Handlin. 2d ed. New York: Longman, 2002. Biography relating Houston’s life and ideas to the development of Texas and other areas of the Southwest during the nineteenth century.

Friend, Llerena B. Sam Houston: The Great Designer. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1954. Excellent scholarly biography. Treats Houston’s entire career with an emphasis on his impact on national events. It is based on extensive archival research and is a good starting place for a full-scale study of Houston and his time.

Gregory, Jack, and Rennard Strickland. Sam Houston with the Cherokees, 1829-1833. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967. Develops in detail the story of Houston’s Indian marriage to Tiana and his role as Cherokee advocate. It is based on solid research previously unconsidered by historians, thereby providing an exhaustive analysis of Houston’s years among the Indians.

Haley, James L. Sam Houston. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002. A more personal view of Houston, in which the author seeks to discover what “made him tick” by examining topics of importance to Houston, such as Native American relations. Houston emerges as a deeply troubled man. Well-researched, accessible biography.

Houston, Samuel. Autobiography of Sam Houston. Edited by Donald Day and Harry Herbert Ullom. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954. Houston paints himself in the best possible light, but this edited version provides insight into the man and his era.

‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. The Writings of Sam Houston, 1813-1863. Edited by Amelia Williams and Eugene C. Barker. 8 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1938-1943. A comprehensive collection of the most important letters and papers dealing with Houston’s career. Contains most of the extant Houston letters.

James, Marquis. The Raven: A Biography of Sam Houston. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1929. Provides a readable narrative with a colorful style. Highlights Houston’s role as friend and political associate of Andrew Jackson. Until the appearance of the above-noted study by Friend, this biography ranked as the most complete analysis of Houston.

Wisehart, Marion K. Sam Houston: American Giant. Washington, D.C.: R. B. Luce, 1962. A laudatory, popular biography, full of detail. Although not scholarly in nature, it is useful because it is based on the important biographies noted above. An excellent study for readers at the high school level.