Sesostris III

Egyptian pharaoh (r. 1878-1843 b.c.e.)

• Born: Unknown
• Birthplace: Unknown
• Died: 1843 b.c.e.
• Place of death: Unknown

Sesostris’s egocentric nature inspired him to be the first king of ancient Egypt to pursue a truly imperialistic policy, conducting war in the Levant and extending Egypt’s southern border. His lasting impact was on Egypt’s social structure, where he eliminated the vestiges of the indigenous nobility.

Early Life

Sesostris (sih-SOH-strihs) III is commonly considered the son of Sesostris II, who ruled from 1897 to 1878 b.c.e., and Queen Nefertiti II, but his origins are not certain. The same uncertainty concerns a possible coregency with the latter, for which there is no indisputable evidence. It is assumed that he became king of Egypt in 1878 b.c.e. and ruled until 1843 b.c.e., a thirty-five year span, although year 19 is the latest attested year of his reign. Sesostris adopted the official name Netjerikheperu.

Life’s Work

Nothing is known about Sesostris’s life prior to his ascent, or about events during the early years of his reign. The earliest preserved inscription dates from his fifth year of rule. It was found in Ezbet el-Saghira, in Egypt’s northeastern delta. This find is not isolated; other material relating to Sesostris has been discovered in the same region. A seated statue of the king was found at Tell Nebesheh, in addition to material at Qantir, Bubastis, and Tanis. These finds may indicate the concern of Sesostris with Egypt’s northeastern border.

Yet Sesostris’s interests did not end at this border. There is a report about a military campaign by a follower of Sesostris named Khu-Sobek, leading to the capture of a region called Sekemem. This region has been identified with Shekhem (biblical Sichem), but because a deep military penetration into Palestine lacks substantiation, this identification has been disputed.

That there was a concerted political interest in the Levant during the reign of Sesostris is suggested by the considerable number of Egyptian objects found in the Levant, namely at Megiddo and Gezer, which date to Sesostris’s reign. These objects probably reflect diplomatic rather than military activity. Such an evaluation is supported by a group of Egyptian texts commonly labeled Execration Texts. These texts consist of magical incantations pronounced to influence the chiefs in a wide range of city-states in Palestine and Syria. Although their political effectiveness could be questioned, they display a detailed familiarity with the political situation in the Levant at the time. The claim in a hymn to Sesostris that “his words control the Asiatics” also points to the influence of Sesostris on the affairs of Syria and Palestine by diplomatic means rather than by military interference.

Egypt’s interests in the exploration of the mineral resources of the Sinai Peninsula seem to have been a major force in the political contacts to the East. During the reign of Sesostris, mining in Serabit el-khadim on Sinai’s western side was limited. Further, no addition to the local sanctuary of the goddess Hathor was constructed during his reign. During the ensuing reign of Amenemhet III, the Sinai mines were extensively explored. This exploration was probably a result of Sesostris’s influence on the Levant scene.

The chief military activity of Sesostris was directed southward against Nubia and was specifically intended to gain control over the area of the Nile’s Second Cataract. Four campaigns by the king are attested by inscriptions, namely in the eighth, tenth, sixteenth, and nineteenth years of his reign. There is no indication that this military activity was in response to any prior aggression or danger. Instead, it seems that Sesostris embarked on the campaigning for imperialistic goals and personal vainglory. At that time, Egyptian authority extended as far south as the northern end of the Second Cataract, where the fortress of Buhen (opposite modern Wadi Halfa) guarded the border. The very inhospitable terrain of the cataract region appears to have been scarcely populated, but south of it was an important Nubian state with Kerma as its center. Apparently, Sesostris aspired to subdue it and to incorporate it into his realm, goals that he ultimately failed to achieve.

Major preparations preceded the first campaign in the eighth year of his reign. In order to move troops and equipment southward, a canal more than 200 feet (61 meters) long, 75 feet (23 meters) wide, and 22 feet (6.7 meters) deep was cut through the rocks forming the First Cataract. Sesostris met with fierce resistance, and the advance proved much more difficult than anticipated. Although the king directed the campaign in person, the proclaimed goal “to overthrow the wretched Kush” turned out to be a more difficult task than the repelling of nomadic tribesmen. At least three more campaigns followed. As a result of these military efforts, Egypt’s southern frontier was pushed some 40 miles (65 kilometers) southward, but it did not advance into the fertile stretch beyond. At strategically dominating places, Sesostris had fortresses built on either side of the Nile River, specifically at Semna (Heh) and Kumna, to shield the dearly won frontier. An inscription there states the king’s political principles:

Southern boundary made in the Year 8 under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Sesostris, may he be given life forever, in order to prevent any Nubian from crossing it by water or by land, with a ship or any herd, except a Nubian who shall come to do trading at Yken or with a commission. Every good thing shall be done to them, but without allowing a ship of Nubians to pass by Heh going north—forever.

The conquest itself held hardly any advantages, except as a potential bridgehead for later operations. The resistance it encountered prevented those plans from succeeding, an indication that a state of considerable military power opposed Sesostris’s expansionist efforts.

By his sixteenth year in power, Sesostris apparently realized the futility of his aspirations and decided to make the frontier permanent at Semna and Kumna. Despite his limited success, he announced it as a great personal achievement:

Every successor of mine shall maintain this boundary which my majesty has made—he is my son born to my majesty. He who shall abandon it and shall not fight for it—he is not my son, he is not born to me.

My majesty had a statue of my majesty set up at this boundary which my majesty made in order that one might stay with it and in order that one fight for it.

The egocentric attitude of Sesostris is clearly apparent in these lines. Indeed, Sesostris was the first king of ancient Egypt to receive worship as a god during his lifetime; this divinization, however, was limited to Nubia. Three hundred years later, Thutmose III (r. 1504-1450 b.c.e.) erected a temple for him at Semna as the “god of Nubia.” Sesostris’s personality left its lasting mark on Egypt proper. Few monuments of him, however, are preserved; they are especially scarce in Middle Egypt. Sesostris favored the temple of Osiris at Abydos and was also active at Thebes.

During Sesostris’s reign, all traces of the indigenous nobility of Egypt disappeared. There are no texts expounding a specific policy, but from the results there can be no question that Sesostris intended to be the sole Egyptian leader, eliminating any potential competition. His methods remain obscure, but the possibility of forced exile is likely. While Sesostris streamlined the social structure by enforcing one single center, the disappearance of the hereditary nobility had its dangers. As long as a strong personality occupied the throne, the affairs of Egypt prospered. When such a ruler was lacking, however, there was nobody in the society to provide the leadership necessary to keep the ship of state on course. It is fitting that fifty-seven years after Sesostris’s death the political structures disintegrated rapidly.

Sesostris had a large mud-brick pyramid built at Dahshûr. Attached to it are the burial places for the members of the royal family. From these tombs come some stunning jewelry, a part of which is housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Later traditions adopted Sesostris as a legendary hero, and stories about him were related by the Greek historians Herodotus (c. 484-c. 425 b.c.e.) and Diodorus Siculus (fl. first century b.c.e.). The stories conflate some of his exploits with those of other kings, especially Ramses II (1279-1213 b.c.e.), to create a romantic quasihistory.

Significance

While Sesostris III was unquestionably an exceptionally strong personality on the throne of Egypt, his excessive ego brought not only blessings but also potential dangers. He demonstrated military determination unparalleled by any earlier king and opened the conquest of Upper Nubia. By concentrating the social structure exclusively on himself and eliminating the indigenous nobility, he initiated the transformation of Egypt from a conservative, traditional society into a politically motivated populace.

Kings of the Twelfth Dynasty

c. 1985-1956

• Amenemhet I

c. 1971-1926

• Sesostris I

1926-1897

• Sesostris II

1897-1878

• Amenemhet II

1878-1843

• Sesostris III

1843-1798

• Amenemhet III

1802-1785

• Amenemhet IV

1785-1782

• Sebeknefru

Note: Dynastic research is ongoing; data are approximate.

Bibliography

Adams, William Yewdale. Nubia: Corridor to Africa. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977. Primarily concerns Egypt’s advance into Nubia. Contains twelve pages of illustrations, bibliographic references, and an index.

Hayes, William C. “The Middle Kingdom in Egypt.” Early History of the Middle East. Vol. 1 in The Cambridge Ancient History, edited by I. E. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, and N. G. L. Hammond. 3d ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1971. A thorough discussion not only of one reign but also of the political tendencies of the time.

Parkinson, R. B., ed. Voices from Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. This collection of translated texts includes the inscription on a stela of Sesostris III and also a hymn to him.

Ziegler, Christiane, ed. The Pharaohs. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2002. This collection of essays includes one on the history of the Middle Kingdom, as well as two that cover the political role of the pharaoh and his place in religious ritual, as both worshiper and deity.