Sioux Wars (military history)
The Sioux Wars encompass a series of conflicts between the Sioux tribes and the United States government during the 19th century, primarily driven by westward expansion and broken treaties. The Sioux, composed of several groups including the eastern Santee and the western Teton, faced significant hardships as settlers encroached on their territories in Minnesota and the northern plains. The tensions escalated after the signing of the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851, which was subsequently violated, leading to armed resistance from the Sioux.
Key events included the Santee Uprising in 1862, spurred by dire conditions on reservations, and Red Cloud's War (1866-1868), where the Sioux successfully resisted U.S. military efforts to control the Bozeman Trail. However, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills in the mid-1870s reignited conflict, culminating in the infamous Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876, where Sioux leaders, including Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, achieved a significant victory over General Custer’s forces.
Despite initial successes, the Sioux were ultimately forced onto reservations as federal military campaigns intensified, particularly after the defeat at Little Bighorn. The tragic Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890 marked a grim conclusion to the Sioux military resistance and ushered in further federal policies aimed at assimilating Native Americans, profoundly impacting Sioux culture and heritage.
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Sioux Wars (military history)
At issue: United States supremacy over Sioux and expansion into Sioux lands
Date: 1862–1891
Location: Minnesota, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, Wyoming, Montana
Combatants: U.S. troops vs. members of Sioux Nation
Principal commanders:United States, General John Pope (1822–1892), Captain William J. Fetterman (1833–1866), Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer (1839–1876), Alfred H. Terry (1827–1890), Colonel John Gibbon (1827–1896), General George F. Crook (1829–1890), General Nelson A. Miles (1839–1925); Sioux, Little Crow (c. 1820–1863), Red Cloud (1822–1909), Sitting Bull (1831–1890), Crazy Horse (1849–1877), Big Foot (c. 1825–1890)
Principal battles: Redwood Agency, Wood Lake, Fetterman Massacre, Wagon Box Fight, Hayfield Fight, Rosebud, Little Bighorn, Wounded Knee
Result: United States victory; Sioux forced on reservations
Background
The Sioux Wars resulted from major conflicts concerning settlers moving west and federal Indian policies. Composed of several tribes, the Sioux occupied regions in Minnesota and the northern plains and dominated other Native American groups.
During the early 1800’s, the United States negotiated treaties with the eastern Sioux (Santee) in Minnesota, eventually placing them on reservations, under horrendous conditions. In September, 1851, western Sioux (Teton) were among approximately 10,000 Indians who signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie. They agreed to stop molesting settlers on the Oregon-California Trail, to recognize tribal boundaries, and to stop fighting among themselves. Like many treaties, provisions were not honored and conflicts continued.
In 1855, the first major armed conflict occurred between the United States and the western Sioux. The army retaliated with punitive actions, including winter campaigns. By the decade’s end, most Sioux had decided to defend their way of life through armed resistance.
Action
By August, 1862, Santee Sioux on the reservation were becoming increasingly discontent. Their annual distribution of annuities was delayed, and they were on the verge of starvation because of graft and corruption. While hunting for food, four young warriors murdered five white settlers (August 17, 1862). Their actions and reservation conditions prompted factions of the Santees to go to war, led by a reluctant Little Crow. They attacked Redwood Agency (August 18, 1862), killing men and capturing women and children. The onslaught continued with attacks on Fort Ridgely and New Ulm.
General John Pope directed generals Henry H. Sibley and Alfred Sully to wage war against them. At Wood Lake (September 23, 1862), Sioux resistance was broken. Ultimately, 303 Sioux were sentenced to death, but only 38 were hanged (December 26). The eastern Sioux were relocated to reservations in Dakota Territory. Little Crow escaped but was later killed by a farmer (1863).
The western Sioux also faced encroachment by white settlers. In 1865, the United States attempted to develop the Bozeman Trail that ran through their Powder River buffalo hunting grounds. Most Sioux, led by Red Cloud, refused to accept negotiations held at Fort Laramie in 1866. Nevertheless, the United States began constructing three forts on the trail to protect commerce and travelers. Red Cloud retaliated. The ensuing conflict, called Red Cloud’s War, was the only war Indians won against the United States. Red Cloud’s hit-and-run tactics wiped out Captain William J. Fetterman’s command, in a battle known as the Fetterman Massacre (December 21, 1866). Indians kept the three forts under siege. At the Wagon Box and Hayfield Fights (summer, 1867), U.S. soldiers, armed with new breech-loading rifles that gave them increased firepower, defended themselves against superior numbers. Red Cloud’s constant pressure finally caused the United States to abandon the forts and the route. In the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie that ended the war, the Sioux agreed to accept reservation life—a decision that led to further conflicts.
Some Sioux, called “hostiles” by the U.S. government, refused to remain on the reservation. In addition, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer’s 1874 expedition to the Black Hills confirmed the existence of gold in the region. The Sioux refused offers to sell these sacred hills. The “hostile” issue and the inability to purchase the Black Hills initiated another war.
Claiming the Sioux violated the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, the United States sent three columns against them and the Northern Cheyenne in the Powder River country in Montana. The U.S. forces planned to attack the Indians with converging columns. Custer and the Seventh Cavalry formed one column, under General Alfred H. Terry, and marched westward from Fort Bismarck, Dakota Territory. Another column, under Colonel John Gibbon, marched eastward from Fort Ellis, Montana, and the third column, under General George F. Crook, marched northward from Fort Fetterman, Wyoming. Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse led the Sioux resistance.
Crazy Horse attacked and defeated General Crook at Rosebud (June 17, 1876), delaying the general’s efforts to join Terry and Gibbon. Uncertain about the Indians’ location and numbers, Terry later ordered Custer to locate them and, if necessary, attack from the south. Custer, following military tactics against Indian camps, divided his forces into three columns, led by himself, Major Marcus A. Reno and Captain Frederick Benteen. However, the Indians knew of Custer’s approach and, instead of scattering, launched attacks against Reno and Benteen, keeping them from coming to Custer’s aid. Custer attacked at Little Bighorn (June 25, 1876), where he was met by more than 2,000 warriors, who overwhelmed Custer’s forces and killed them all. The Sioux victory was short-lived. An outraged federal government launched relentless warfare, forced the Sioux back to the reservations, and ultimately took the Black Hills.
The remainder of the 1870’s and the 1880’s were devastating years for the Sioux, who were confined on reservations where they were victimized by federal Indian policies that stripped them of their heritage. However, in 1890, the Sioux adopted the Ghost Dance religion that promised the return of the old ways and the disappearance of white Americans. Alarmed, federal officials ordered the arrest of the movement’s leaders, Sitting Bull and Big Foot. Sitting Bull was killed while resisting arrest. At Wounded Knee (December 29, 1890), Colonel James W. Forsyth and soldiers from the Seventh Cavalry attempted to disarm Big Foot’s band. When someone fired a shot, the battle began. Rapid-fire Hotchkiss guns indiscriminately killed soldiers and Indians, including women and children.
Aftermath
The tragedy at Wounded Knee marked the end of Sioux military resistance. Federal Indian assimilation policies continued to be relentlessly imposed on them.
Bibliography
Lazarus, Edward. Black Hills White Justice: The Sioux Nation Versus the United States, 1775 to the Present. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.
McMurtry, Larry. Crazy Horse. London: Phoenix, 2000.
Meyer, Roy W. History of the Santee Sioux: United States Indian Policy on Trial. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967.
Utley, Robert M. The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846–1890. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1984.
‗‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. The Last Days of the Sioux Nation. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1963.