Sputnik I
Sputnik I, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, was the world's first artificial satellite, marking a significant milestone in the history of space exploration. Weighing 183 pounds and resembling a basketball with antennas, Sputnik I orbited the Earth every ninety-eight minutes, transmitting data about the ionosphere and emitting a beeping signal that could be received by amateur radio operators worldwide. This event escalated the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, as it challenged American beliefs about their scientific superiority. Following its launch, subsequent Soviet missions, including the launch of Sputnik II with a dog named Laika, heightened concerns in the U.S. about Soviet advancements in space technology and potential military applications. In response, President Dwight D. Eisenhower initiated changes in the U.S. space program, leading to the establishment of NASA and increased investment in science and education. The launch of Sputnik I catalyzed the space race, prompting the U.S. to strive for significant achievements, culminating in the successful moon landing of Apollo 11 in 1969. Over time, as relations eased post-Cold War, both nations collaborated on future space exploration endeavors, including contributions to the International Space Station.
Sputnik I
The Event Placing into orbit of the world’s first artificial satellite
Date Launched on October 4, 1957
Place Baikonur Space Center, Kazakhstan, Soviet Union
The launch and orbit of the first human-made satellite demonstrated the scientific prowess of the Soviet Union at a time when it was assumed that the United States was far ahead in the space race and heightened Cold War tensions.
The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union began shortly after the conclusion of World War II. It was largely characterized by antipathy for each another’s leaders and political ideology. Although there was ideological conflict and constant international tension, the nations did not engage in direct military confrontation. However, there was strong competition in several areas during the 1950’s, including the fields of science and technology.
The International Geophysical Year
In 1952 , the International Council of Scientific Unions announced that the period between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, would be designated as the International Geophysical Year (IGY), a period coinciding with the peak of activity in the solar cycle. Two years later, the council passed a resolution recommending that artificial satellites be launched during the IGY in order to survey Earth’s surface.
In 1955, both the United States and the Soviet Union publically announced plans to place artificial satellites in orbit during the IGY. However, for a number of reasons, the Soviets proceeded at a faster pace to create the requisite rocket technology to launch their satellite. The United States seemed to be more concerned with intercontinental ballistic missile research. Moreover, although the American satellite was to be built by a civilian company, the U.S. Navy was given jurisdiction to run the American program, which contributed to a fierce rivalry between the military services. Finally, although the Americans actually had tested rockets that had the potential to achieve Earth orbit, they did not want to deviate from the officially sanctioned project. The Soviet Union experienced none of these problems.
The Launch
Through the first half of 1957, the Soviets tested rockets, finally achieving success in August. They announced plans to launch an artificial satellite and even invited the Americans to fly a radio-frequency-based device on a Soviet rocket. The United States rejected the offer amid disbelief about the Soviets’ progress.
On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik I—a term meaning “fellow traveler.” The world’s first human-made satellite, Sputnik looked like a basketball with antennas and weighed 183 pounds. Its mission was to return data about the earth’s ionosphere. It orbited the earth every ninety-eight minutes for twenty-one days, emitting a beeping noise that could be picked up by ham radios throughout the world. A month later, Sputnik II was launched with a dog aboard. Named Laika—Russian for “barker”—the fourteen-pound female canine became the first living thing from Earth to reach outer space. The Soviets monitored Laika’s biological data to see how she was adapting to the new environment. Laika died after four days, though the satellite remained in orbit for five months.
Reaction
The awe that Americans collectively voiced after the first Sputnik launch quickly turned to anger and fear after the second launch. Americans had been led to believe that their nation was far ahead of the Soviet Union in science; the tandem takeoffs of artificial satellites was seen as a national embarrassment by many U.S. citizens. Meanwhile, others expressed concern that the newly displayed Soviet space technology might be turned against America militarily.
The U.S. government’s immediate reaction to the Soviet Union’s achievement came after Sputnik I was sent into orbit. On October 9, 1957, President Dwight D. Eisenhower held a press conference on the issue. Though admitting that American scientists were surprised about the development, Eisenhower downplayed the significance of the Sputnik launch and insisted that the only advantage that the Soviets may have gained over the Americans was psychological. Nevertheless, most commentators regarded the press conference as the most hostile of Eisenhower’s presidency.
Eisenhower took several actions to counter the Soviet space initiative. He established the President’s Science Advisory Committee after the Sputnik II satellite was launched. The charge to the committee was to evaluate the pace and direction of the U.S. space program. Eisenhower also transferred responsibility for the satellite program from the Navy to the Army. These moves had visible benefits. Following a failed launch of the Vanguard I satellite in December, 1957, the United States sent its first artificial satellite into orbit—Explorer I—on January 31, 1958. Four more American satellites were successfully launched between that date and October of 1958.
Impact
In July, 1959, the Office of Research and Analysis of the U.S. Information Agency released a summary assessment of the effect of the American and Soviet space programs on world opinion. The report claimed that although the Sputnik program changed global views of Soviet power and standing in important ways, subsequent U.S. space activities had restored confidence in American scientific capabilities. That same year, the U.S. government established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Moreover, the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which funneled millions of dollars into educational institutions, was viewed as an effort by government to bolster a new generation of mathematicians and scientists in order to compete more effectively with the Soviet Union.
Subsequent Events
The Sputnik launch heightened the Cold War space race. At the start of the 1960’s, the Soviets again beat the Americans to another goal: placing the first human in space. The flight of cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on April 12, 1961, was matched by American Alan Shepard three weeks later. Shortly thereafter, President John F. Kennedy espoused the intention of the United States to land Americans on the moon by the end of the decade. Through many trials and tribulations, that goal was reached six months ahead of Kennedy’s timetable, and before the Soviets, on July 20, 1969.
By the 1990’s, the Cold War had thawed. Postcommunist Russia and the United States shared data and facilities related to space research. Both nations contributed to the construction of the International Space Station, from which future exploration of outer space will emanate.
Bibliography
Burrows, William. This New Ocean. New York: Random House, 1998. An overview of the development of flight from ancient times to the exploration of Mars.
Dickson, Paul. Sputnik: The Shock of the Century. New York: Berkley, 2001. A comprehensive history of the Soviet satellite program and American reaction to it.
Walsh, Patrick J. Echoes Among the Stars: A Short History of the U.S. Space Program. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2000. Traces America’s space program from the creation of National Aeronautics Space Administration to the space shuttle.