Turkish War of Independence
The Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923) was a pivotal conflict that established the foundation of modern Turkey. Following World War I, Allied forces occupied the Ottoman Empire, leading to invasions from Greece and Armenia, which sought to claim parts of the territory. In this context, Mustafa Kemal, later known as Atatürk, emerged as a central figure, organizing a nationalist movement with its capital in Ankara. The war was marked by significant battles, such as the Inönü Battles and the critical engagement at the Sakarya River, where Turkish forces, despite facing initial setbacks, began to turn the tide against the Greek army.
As the conflict progressed, the Turkish nationalist forces launched a decisive offensive in 1922, culminating in the recapture of Izmir and a swift retreat of Greek forces. Following the war, the aftermath included a population exchange and the negotiation of the Treaty of Lausanne, which recognized Turkey's sovereignty. This war not only resulted in the establishment of Turkey as a secular republic under Atatürk but also reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the region, affecting the lives of many ethnic groups and communities. The Turkish War of Independence remains a significant chapter in the country's history, reflecting themes of national identity, resistance, and state-building.
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Turkish War of Independence
At issue: Turkish struggle for independence
Date: June 22, 1919-July 24, 1923
Location: Anatolia, Turkey
Combatants: Turks vs. Greeks
Principal commanders:Turkish, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938); Greek, Constantine I, king of Greece (1868–1923)
Principal battles: Kars, First Inönü, Second Inönü, Eskişehir, Sakarya, Afyon, Brusa, Dumlupinar, Izmir
Result: The Turks drove out the Greeks, established a new republic, and negotiated a new treaty with the Allies
Background
In 1919, the Allies occupied the Ottoman capital at Istanbul, and the Greek army began to invade Asia Minor from the West. In addition, the newly proclaimed Armenian Republic invaded from the east, and the great powers divided most of the Ottoman Empire among themselves. In this helpless situation, a Turkish hero arose—Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk, the Young Turk commander who had distinguished himself during the Gallipoli Campaign, 1915–1916).
Action
Kemal organized a nationalist government with its capital at Ankara. His new army, with great cruelty, drove out the Armenians from the eastern sections of the country, killing and forcing out many civilians and capturing Kars (October 21, 1919). Meanwhile, the Greek invasion began with initial success (June, 1919), as the only resistance came from unorganized guerrilla bands. The Greeks occupied Western Anatolia from Izmir (Smyrna) to Brusa. However, the farther they advanced, the more deeply they moved into Kemal’s trap, and the army did not have the supplies for an extensive campaign deep in Turkish territory. Planning to cut the Turkish lines of communication in a winter assault and wait for the spring to begin their major advance, the Greeks attacked at several points. The main conflict occurred in the Inönü Valley near Brusa, where Kemal had concentrated his troops (January 6-7, 1921). The Greeks expected the easy victories they had against the irregulars, but the newly formed nationalist army led by Ismet Pasha put up a stiff defense. The next day, the Turks counterattacked, forcing the Greeks to retreat. The Greeks attacked again (March 23). They took Afyon easily and moved toward Konia, where Kemal brought up troops. However, Ismet Pasha stopped them in the Second Battle of Inönü (March 28-30).
King Constantine I personally took command of the Greek army and began a three-pronged offensive, finally capturing Eskişehir (July 16-17). Kemal then manipulated the Greeks to meet him in the key battle at the Sakarya River (August 24-September 16), where he commanded the heights on the eastern bank. The Greek commanders ordered their troops to annihilate the enemy, but the tired, hungry soldiers could not defeat the Turks, who waited for them in fortified positions. Both sides fought with roughly equal troops and suffered equal casualties—about half of both armies. The Greeks retreated to more defendable positions, but the tide of the war had turned. Demoralized Greek soldiers deserted in ever-increasing numbers.
Kemal waited a full year before beginning his offensive, cutting the Greek lines (August 22, 1922). The northern section retreated to the Sea of Marmora as the Turks took Afyon (August 30) and Brusa (September 5). The Turks also pursued the southern army, which retreated in wild disarray to Izmir (Smyrna), the center of Greek population in Anatolia, defeating them at Dumlupinar (August 30). The army took Izmir (September 9-11) and burned the city. The Greeks then abandoned Anatolia.
Aftermath
The royalist government executed six of the responsible ministers and generals. A population exchange to the advantage of the Turks reduced the number of Greeks on Turkish soil. Kemal renegotiated the imposed Treaty of Sévres (1919) with the Treaty of Lausanne (July, 1923), gave up the non-Turkish territories of the old Ottoman Empire, regained Istanbul through diplomacy, and set about turning Turkey into a modern secular republic.
Bibliography
Criss, Bilge. Istanbul Under Allied Occupation, 1918–1923. Boston: Brill, 1999.
Erhan, Cagri. Greek Occupation of Izmir and Adjoining Territories: Report of the Inter-Allied Commission of Inquiry (May-September, 1919). Ankara, Turkey: SAM, 1999.
Karagianis, Lydia. Smoldering Smyrna. New York: Carlton Press, 1995.
Kinross, Patrick Balfour, Lord. Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation. London: Phoenix, 1995.
Pallis, Alexander Anastasius. Greece’s Anatolian Venture—And After: A Survey of the Diplomatic and Political Aspects of the Greek Expedition to Asia Minor (1915–1922). London: Methuen, 1937.
Sonyel, Salahi Ramsdan. Turkish Diplomacy 1918–1923: Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish National Movement. London: Sage, 1988.