Tuskegee Airmen
The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of African American military pilots and aircrew who fought in World War II, forming the first all-black combat squadron in the U.S. Army Air Forces. Their formation was part of a broader initiative to address racial inequality in the military, spearheaded by political pressures during the 1940s. The most prominent squadron, the 332d Fighter Group, became known for its distinctive red-tailed aircraft and exemplary combat performance, which helped challenge prevailing racial stereotypes. Significant events related to their service included the Freeman Army Air Field Mutiny, a protest against segregation and discrimination within the military. Under the leadership of figures like Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., the Tuskegee Airmen not only showcased their flying skills but also played a crucial role in advocating for racial integration in the armed forces. Their legacy contributed to the eventual signing of Executive Order 9981 by President Harry S. Truman in 1948, which mandated equal treatment for all servicemen, marking a pivotal moment in the history of military integration in the United States. The achievements of the Tuskegee Airmen continue to symbolize the fight for equality and justice within the U.S. military and society at large.
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Tuskegee Airmen
Identification African American Army Air Force pilots who trained at the Tuskegee Institute flying school during World War II
Date Organized in 1941
Place Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama
Formation of the first all-black flying unit in early 1941 brought about significant changes in racist War Department policies that had been in effect since 1925. The combat performance of these pilots altered extant beliefs that African Americans were inherently inferior to whites.
In July, 1948, U.S. president Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981, which required equal treatment and opportunity for black servicemen. The order was a turning point in the history of integration of the U.S. armed services. Although the proximate causes of the president’s action may have been political pressure and a need for black votes, the remote causes were threefold: the formation of an all-black fighter squadron known later as the Tuskegee Airmen (1941), the mutiny at Freeman Army Air Field (1945), and the command and leadership of Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.
The 332d Fighter Group
The formation of the 332d Fighter Group, the famous “Red Tails,” came about initially from the political initiatives of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1939, he needed black votes for the 1940 election and insisted on allowing African Americans to serve in all branches of the armed services. Although black pilots were available from civilian training programs, no combat flying unit existed for them. The Army and its Army Air Forces (USAAF) was not quick to act, but it finally succumbed to political pressures and some legal wrangling. Tuskegee Institute in Alabama received funds to begin an Army Air Forces training program, complete with flying field, for black pilots. The group trained there, known as the Ninety-ninth Pursuit Squadron, shipped to North Africa as a fighter squadron in April, 1943. The demand for qualified pilots as the war progressed saw the formation of three more black-only squadrons, being formed into the 332d Fighter Group, activated in October, 1942.
The so-called “Tuskegee Experiment” was initiated to have a “separate but equal” flying unit for blacks—and to determine whether black pilots could meet required flying standards. The black airmen of the 332d Fighter Group overcame the racist policies of the 1925 War College Report and received top commendations from USAAF commanders due to excellent combat achievements.
The Freeman Army Air Field Mutiny
Other black airmen, some experienced returnees from the Ninety-ninth or the 332d, or from various flying schools, began training as combat crews for the B-25 medium bomber. The 477th Bomber Group (Medium) was activated in January, 1944, as the only black bombardment unit. Racial tensions existed from the very beginning: The white commander promoted whites, and black officers could not be in command of white personnel. Then, in a complicated series of moves, because of local racial tensions and bad training weather, officers and crews, both trainers and trainees, were shuttled from Selfridge Field, near Detroit, Michigan, to Godman Field, near Fort Knox, Kentucky, and then again to Freeman Army Air Field, near Seymour, Indiana. These moves made over the course of a few months delayed training and lowered morale, and they were made more to calm segregationists than to further creation of a combat-ready flying unit.
Even more aggravating to the black trainees were the dual officers’ clubs, established against Army regulations. Some black officers, challenging the de facto segregation, entered the white club. They were arrested. Later, 101 black officers refused to sign a newly drafted “Club Order,” requiring them to accept the regulating of segregation in the officers’ clubs. They were arrested, then charged subsequently with “willful disobedience” in the form of “disobeying a direct order by a superior officer in time of war.” This event is known as the Freeman Field Mutiny of April 11, 1945.
With the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) championing their cause, the Freeman Field 101 found themselves the object of a congressional investigation. They were released, but three of them were tried in July. One was convicted and fined. (During the 1990’s, all charges were dropped and reprimands were dismissed.)
Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.
In May, 1945, the 477th was relocated back to Godman Field. In June, the new 477th Composite Group was placed under the command of a black officer, Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. He brought to the job his years as a black officer, as the first commander of the Ninety-ninth Pursuit Squadron, and as commander and combat pilot in the 332d Fighter Group. Part of the original Tuskegee Experiment, he endured racial discrimination and four years of silent treatment as a West Point cadet and racial prejudice within the USAAF. With his family, he lived in and around segregated and prejudiced military facilities. As a leader, he fought racial obstacles, both in combat in the Mediterranean theater and in congressional testimony before bigoted committees and groups who hoped for the failure of black pilots. By his professional efforts, his units became pride-filled examples of cooperation, yet they experienced the painful struggle toward integration, with equal rights decades away.
Impact
The inroads made by the original Tuskegee Airmen and by Davis contributed to change, slow though it was, toward integration and equal rights in American society. Throughout the 1940’s, segregation and racial discrimination forced black servicemen to prove they possessed the skills and abilities to compete successfully. Truman recognized their achievement with Executive Order 9981. By 1949, the United States Air Force (USAF) had progressed further in its integration efforts than any other military service, progress that began at the Tuskegee Institute.
Bibliography
Blackman, Douglas A. Slavery by Another Name: The Re-enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II. New York: Doubleday, 2008. Provides background to issues of racism and white supremacy. This book will help readers understand the feelings of blacks at Tuskegee, and what they fought for.
Bucholtz, Chris. 332nd Fighter Group: Tuskegee Airmen. Oxford, England: Osprey, 2007. A balanced presentation of the combat history of the all-black fighting group, this comprehensive and detailed account covers the range of military operations and achievements of the pilots.
Coggins, Patrick C. Tuskegee Airman Fighter Pilot: A Story of an Original Tuskegee Pilot, Lt. Col. Hiram E. Mann. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford, 2008. A testament to one Tuskegee Airman, this book documents his background, training, and achievements, providing personal insights into the pilots and the values they held.
Davis, Benjamin O., Jr. American: An Autobiography. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991. A presentation of the highs and lows of a thirty-eight-year military career. Demonstrates the courage and valor of the man who fought for the civil rights of those in his command, and for those who would come after them.
Dryden, Charles W., and Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. A-Train: Memoirs of a Tuskegee Airman. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2002. A moving personal account by one of the first Tuskegee Airmen, enumerating the obstacles he overcame in the quest to fly in World War II.
Francis, Charles E., and Adolph Caso. The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation. 5th ed. Boston: Branden, 2008. A firsthand telling of the experiences undertaken and endured at Tuskegee and the significance of the experiment.
Homan, Lynn M., and Thomas Reilley. Black Knights. Gretna, La.: Pelican, 2001. The authors present personal struggles, not only of the pilots but also of the crews, nurses, and others involved with the Tuskegee experience.
Scott, Lawrence P., and William M. Womack. Double V: The Civil Rights Struggle of the Tuskegee Airmen. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1998. Devoted to the details of the suffering endured as a result of segregation on military installations. Discusses the Freeman Army Air Field 101.
Warren, James C. The Tuskegee Airmen Mutiny at Freemen Field. Conyers, Ga.: Conyers, 2001. A personal account of the black officers and enlisted men involved with the 477th Bomber Group and its protest at Freeman Army Air Field in 1945.