Ultramontanism

Ultramontanism is a religious belief related to the Catholic Church that promotes the supreme authority of the pope as a spiritual head. It also emphasizes the centralization of the Church and is related to the Catholic doctrine of papal infallibility, the theological teaching that the pope cannot be questioned when teaching matters of faith. The exact definition of ultramontanism has evolved over centuries, but for the most part, the term is applied negatively to a member of the Church by others in the faith as being too conservative as to the authority of the pope.

At the heart of ultramontanism is the degree of authority the pope has in the affairs of the Catholic Church, its members, and by extension, the degree of separation of Church and state that is appropriate in a government. This has been debated by philosophers and theologians over the centuries and in varied political climates.

Background

The term ultramontanism came into use in the Middle Ages, when the pope was said to be a papa ultramontano, or “pope beyond the mountains.” The term specifically related to the geographical position of Rome as being separated from Europe by the Alps mountain range. The term later evolved to take on a different meaning during the years of the Protestant Reformation and to mean specifically located in Italy. Ultramontanism thus became more of a politically related stance of supporting centralized papal authority over state authority, especially in France and Germany.

Conversely, Gallicanism was a conflicting belief that papal authority was a foreign influence to be avoided. The concept originated in France and supported the independence of the French Catholic Church from the pope. Supporters of Gallicanism saw those who supported the supreme authority of the pope over that of the state as unpatriotic. Therefore, they termed any Catholics who supported Roman doctrines and the pope’s authority as ultramontanes, which was meant to be an insult.

In the seventeenth century, the religious order of the Jesuits became associated with ultramontanism. They devoutly ascribed all authority to the pope. In some areas of Europe, such as the Spanish Empire, the Jesuits were expelled because of their steadfast support of the Church over the rule of the state.

In the eighteenth century, ultramontanism took on a broader meaning for any Catholic who supported the rule of the Church in favor of a government. The name was adopted by other Catholic factions to label those who were considered Roman Catholics or part of the Roman rite of Catholicism.

The First Vatican Council in 1868, which was partly held to determine the exact manner of influence the Church had in society, deemed Gallicanism as heretical. In 1870, the council formally accepted the doctrine of papal primacy, which addressed the respect required from other members of the Church and the authority of the pope. The council thus instituted the official doctrine of papal infallibility, which meant that the pope had the ultimate authority to make proclamations regarding matters of faith and morals.

However, as Protestantism spread across Europe, the Catholic Church’s influence began to fade in some governments, such as Germany and the United Kingdom. Meanwhile, in Spain, the Bourbon monarchy expanded its power to bring the Church under its jurisdiction. They rejected the notion that the Catholic Church could regulate matters in the secular world and that the pope was infallible on matters outside of doctrine.

Some Catholics, too, wanted to reduce Rome and the pope’s authority in governmental matters. In 1871, the Declaration of Munich was made at the first Old Catholic Congress in Munich, Germany, where the movement of ultramontanism was considered heresy. They sought to reform the authority of the Church and for the German government to be recognized as separate from the Roman Catholic Church. Other German declarations followed, and the Old Catholics formally split with Rome over the matter of infallibility.

The controversy of the initial movement of ultramontanism largely died down following the Italian Unification and the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 between France and Germany. However, some devout followers remained and continued to adhere to the infallibility of the pope in matters of faith and state, but also in his personal opinions and having impeccability, or an absolute absence of sin. However, this view was not supported by the First Vatican Council nor by the Second Vatican Council of the 1960s. After this, the labeling of ultramontanism began to be extended to these more extreme theological viewpoints in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

In the nineteenth century, the ultramontanism school of thought was also revived in French Canadian Catholic seminaries and parishes and was a guiding theological school of thought for French Canadian nationalists, such as Maurice Duplessis, who sought a Church-run government. This influenced French-Canadian principles related to the authority of the Church in governmental and educational affairs up until the mid-twentieth century and the ruling of the Second Vatican Council.

Overview

According to the Catholic faith, apostolic primacy, or preference, was given to Jesus’ Apostle Peter, and this divine authority was passed on to the papacy through the lines of the popes. It is the basis for the founding Catholic doctrine of papal infallibility, which means the pope is free from error when acting as a ruling agent. The First Vatican Councils established this dogma and set the conditions that the pope speaks ex-cathedra, or literally “from his chair” as an undisputed teacher. While some Catholics feel this only relates to specific matters of doctrine, morals, or spirituality, those labeled as ultramontanes generally have a broader view and believe it extends to other matters, such as political rule. Extremist adherents also believe it extends even further to any statement of opinion on any subject of the pope.

Many religious theologians feel that following the First Vatican Council, there was no longer a need to differentiate adherents as ultramontanists because papal infallibility was an integral part of the doctrine of Catholicism and clearly defined the limits of the pope's infallibility. Hence, all Catholics would need to subscribe to the teaching of papal authority as set out by the council. Thus, the movement helped the council to clearly define the Catholic Church’s doctrine. The authority of the pope is central to the faith of all Catholics, and he is given the utmost respect. He is also responsible for commenting on matters of faith and morals and appointing bishops for dioceses globally.

So, the First Vatican Council did end much of the ultramontanism debate. However, it was revived, once again, as a derisive term, as the definition of ultramontanism evolved in the coming century. In the twenty-first century, the term is used to include conservative Catholics who feel that there should be more involvement of the Church in political affairs. However, it does not always denote orthodoxy, or conservatism, in religious views.

The nuance of meaning differs depending on the current ideologies of the pope, as well. For example, during the time of Pope Benedict XVI, who was more conservative, it was used by progressive Church members against more traditional Catholics who revered Pope Benedict. However, there was a shift when Pope Francis became head of the Catholic Church in 2013. He appealed more to liberal Catholics, and more conservative Catholics sometimes termed those who agreed with his theological ideals as ultramontanists. Either way, it is generally viewed as a critical term for someone who puts too much emphasis on a particular pope’s theological beliefs and leanings.

The debate about the exact extent of the authority of the pope has been the subject of many philosophers. In the mid-twentieth century, the liberalist French Catholic philosopher Jacques Maritain argued against the sole reliance on supreme papal authority in the government but was in favor of active participation of the Church in political affairs. Although raised a Protestant, he and his wife converted to Catholicism after his education. He was influenced by the philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas and is well-known for his modern religious interpretations of Thomism, or the teachings of Thomas Aquinas. He pointed to the difference between the separation of church and state in France and the United States. He noted that although there was a distinction between the two in the United States, there was also cooperation, and he felt that this arrangement was ideal.

Ultramontanism, even according to the broadest definition, does differ from the stance of other churches of Christendom that have emerged over the centuries, such as Eastern Orthodox or Anglican, which have their roots in Catholicism. These churches feel the pope has or has had in the past some authority or seniority, but they do not recognize the doctrine of papal infallibly. For example, the Eastern Orthodox Church, while considering itself to be Catholic, does not subscribe to the authority of the pope in doctrinal matters. Instead, an ecumenical council is considered the supreme authority to comment on and set doctrine related to issues of faith and morals.

Bibliography

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