United States presidential election of 1860

The United States presidential election of 1860 was the nineteenth presidential election in the nation’s history. The United States was becoming increasingly divided as the election approached and was on the verge of splintering. Most of the controversy involved slavery, an issue that had a great impact on the nation’s economics, politics, and legislation. Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election and was sworn in as the nation’ sixteenth president. Lincoln was the first president to come from the Republican Party, which had formed in 1854.

The United States consisted of thirty-three states at the time of the election. It was the first presidential election for the newest states of Minnesota and Oregon. The election fractured the Democratic Party and dissolved the Whig Party, which had been a prominent political force since the 1830s. The tensions over slavery grew as the election neared, and Lincoln’s victory was seen as the last straw for many pro-slavery southern lawmakers. Within a year, several southern states seceded from the United States to spark the American Civil War (1861-1865).

Background

The issue of slavery had been debated in the United States even prior to the American Revolution (1775-1783). As the nineteenth century progressed, the agricultural economies of the southern states grew increasingly dependent on slave labor. Northern states relied more on manufacturing and had little use for slave labor. Northerners in favor of abolishing slavery declared that it was an immoral, unethical practice. Southern supporters of slavery argued that northern states relied on the crops that slave labor provided but did none of the work to produce those crops. Many southern leaders believed northern states were acting in their own interests and did consider what was best for the entire country. In their eyes, if the north could outvote them and ban slavery, northern lawmakers could control other aspects of the country, leaving the south with no voice. In turn, the south held a large enough percentage of the population that an immediate ban on slavery was not a realistic goal for northern leaders.

In 1854, Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas drafted the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which led to the creation of the Kansas and Nebraska territories. Douglas supported the idea of popular sovereignty, which gave each new territory or state the opportunity to vote on whether it would allow slavery. In Kansas, this resulted in widespread voter fraud as pro- and anti-slavery supporters flooded in from outside states to sway the election. The conflict quickly escalated to violence.

Furthering the national controversy was the US Supreme Court’s decision on the case Dred Scott v. Sandford. Scott was a slave who was taken to states where slavery was illegal. Because of this, he sued for freedom. The court reached a decision in 1857 that denied his status as a free man. It argued that since he was not a citizen, he was not capable of suing in a federal court. It went even further, declaring that black Americans had no rights as citizens and slaves would remain slaves even in states where slavery was illegal. Abolitionists believed that the court had reached far beyond its jurisdiction. The basis for the decision was also questionable, since free black Americans had the right to vote in some northern states.

Overview

By the late 1850s, the nation was strongly divided. The Republican Party emerged from this chaos, running on an anti-slavery platform. Most of the first Republicans were former Whig Party members.

In 1858, Republican Abraham Lincoln challenged Douglas for his seat on the Senate. The two Illinois politicians engaged in a series of debates. Lincoln was opposed to slavery and believed that popular sovereignty was a method of endorsing the practice while appearing neutral. Lincoln lost the Senate race, but became nationally known as a strong speaker and political leader.

Lincoln stated that he did not intend to take slavery away from states that already practiced it. Other Republicans believed that only complete abolition was acceptable. Despite this disagreement, Lincoln’s speaking skills and fame from the debates with Douglas helped him secure the Republican nomination in 1860.

Of the remaining Whigs, many felt that their top priority was keeping the country united. They formed the Constitutional Union Party, effectively ending the Whig Party. They nominated John Bell as their presidential candidate.

The Democrats were also in disarray. Douglas initially seemed like their leading candidate, but several southern Democrats were opposed to his idea of popular sovereignty. They believed that states should not be given the option to ban slavery. Dozens of them walked out of the 1860 Democratic National Convention. The party held a second convention two months later. This time even more southern Democrats refused to participate and formed their own party.

The Southern Democrats nominated the sitting vice president, John Breckinridge. Douglas was the clear favorite among the Northern Democrats. He actively campaigned across the country, something that was rare at the time. Future presidential candidates followed his example.

During the campaign, many southern lawmakers announced their intent to secede from the country if Lincoln won the election. They were unconvinced of Lincoln’s promise to allow slavery to continue in their states. They believed that his administration would serve the north and expand non-slave territory at the expense of the south.

The election was defined by regional interests. Lincoln was dominant in the north, taking every state except for New Jersey, which he split with Douglas. The only other state Douglas was able to take was Missouri. Breckinridge took most southern states, while Bell took the states Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia.

The fact that northern states had larger populations assured Lincoln’s victory. He secured less than 40 percent of the popular vote, but because he won some of the most populous states, he captured 180 out of 303 possible electoral votes. Douglas earned nearly 30 percent of the popular vote, but most of them came from states that Lincoln carried, leaving him with only 12 electoral votes. Breckinridge secured most of the south’s electoral votes, giving him 72. He carried 11 of the 33 states, but only received 18 percent of the popular vote. Bell carried three relatively populous states, giving him 39 electoral votes and more than 12 percent of the popular vote.

After Lincoln’s victory was announced, seven states seceded. When Lincoln was inaugurated in 1861, his inaugural address focused on finding peace and reuniting with the departed states. Despite his words, four more states seceded, and the Civil War began later that year.

Bibliography

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