Vietnamese-Cham Wars
The Vietnamese-Cham Wars were a series of conflicts primarily between the Vietnamese kingdom of Dai Viet and the maritime kingdom of Champa, located in what is now central and southern Vietnam. The roots of these wars can be traced back to the differing cultural and religious influences of the two groups, with the Vietnamese being predominantly Buddhist and the Chams influenced by Indian traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Following the independence of Dai Viet from Chinese control in 939, tensions escalated into border disputes with Champa.
Throughout the centuries, both kingdoms engaged in numerous military confrontations, including notable events such as the Vietnamese invasion of Champa in 1044, which resulted in the death of Cham King Jaya Paramesvaravarman II, and a series of retaliatory raids by the Chams. Despite some temporary alliances, such as with the Khmer, the Chams struggled to maintain their territory as the Vietnamese steadily advanced, culminating in the significant defeat at Vijaya in 1471. This battle marked the decline of the Cham state, leading to the dispersal of its aristocracy, particularly into Cambodia, while the remnants of Cham identity persisted in the region. The conflicts exemplify complex historical interactions that shaped the cultural and political landscape of Southeast Asia.
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Vietnamese-Cham Wars
At issue: Control of the kingdom of Champa (southern Vietnam)
Date: 1000–1471
Location: Vietnam
Combatants: Chams vs. Vietnamese
Principal commanders:Dai Viet, Ly Thanh-Tong (1022–1072), Le Than-Ton (d. 1497); Champa, Che A-nan, Che Bong Nga (d. 1390)
Principal battles: Vijaya (1044, 1471)
Result: Champa was gradually absorbed into Dai Viet
Background
The small, maritime kingdom of Champa lay to the south of populous Dai Viet (incorporating regions in modern northern Vietnam, known to medieval China as Tonkin and Annam, or the “pacified south”). Whereas the Vietnamese were Buddhists, the Chams had long been heavily influenced by India, and their religion incorporated both Hindu and Buddhist practices. When Dai Viet succeeded in breaking away from Chinese control in 939, they continued the ongoing border conflicts with the Cham. In 979, the Cham king, Paramesvaravarman I, supported a rival to the Dai Viet throne, leading to an unsuccessful retaliatory invasion of Cham in 989.
Action
By 1000, Dai Viet pressure, from both invasion and settlement, threatened northern Champa and led to the removal of the capital to Vijaya. Early in the eleventh century, the Chams retaliated, which led Le Dai Hanh to again invade Champa and begin to exact tribute. Eventually, the northern districts were ceded to Annam and the Cham capital was moved to Vijaya (Binh Dinh) in the south. Further Cham resistance led Vietnamese ruler Ly Thanh-Tong to launch a sea attack, capturing Vijaya, in 1044, and killing the Cham king, Jaya Paramesvaravarman II. In the 1060’s, the Cham temporarily allied themselves to their western neighbors, the Khmer (Cambodians), invading southern Dai Viet in order to regain lost territories. Vietnamese ruler Ly Thanh-Tong responded by invading Champa, in 1068, burning Vijaya and imprisoning Rudravarman III. Champa ransomed its king shortly before his death by ceding the border provinces north of the Col des Nuages, but under Harivarman IV warded off further Vietnamese and Cambodian invasions.
For almost 250 years, Champa, Annam, and Cambodia were engaged in almost constant struggle over control of the region, their local disagreements frequently subordinated to larger threats from China, Siam (Tai peoples), or the Mongols. When the Khmers evacuated Champa in 1220, Cham kings again attacked Dai Viet, hoping to regain the lost provinces. An invasion by Tran Thai Ton, in 1252, led to the death of Champa’s Jaya Paramesvaravarman II, marking Vietnamese dominance. Between 1257 and about 1290, both Champa and Dai Viet were the targets of Mongol aggression. Both countries stubbornly refused to submit to Mongol rule and eventually forced them to withdraw. In the afterglow of this common victory, an alliance of friendship was formed in 1306 when King Jaya Sinhavarman III wed a Vietnamese princess. The tactical marriage required Champa to cede two more provinces south of the Col des Nuages. In 1312, rebellions in former Cham provinces led the Vietnamese to invade Champa, capturing their king, Jaya Sinhavarman IV, and annexing the kingdom.
A Cham rebellion, which lasted from 1314 to 1318, the first of many in the ceded provinces, led to the appointment of General Che A-nan as governor. Che switched sides, however, and eventually received Mongol aid in gaining Champa’s independence in 1326. Champa renewed its attacks, unsuccessfully invading Hue province in 1353. It briefly regained military prominence, however, under the leadership of General Che Bong Nga (d. 1390), successfully taking Thang Long (Hanoi) in 1371. In 1377, the Chams drove Vietnamese forces from Vijaya, killing King Tran Due Ton. During Dai Viet’s long struggle against Chinese occupation, Champa reclaimed some territory north of the Col des Nuages. When Champa continued further raids, Dai Viet struck back, invading Champa in 1446 and briefly taking the capital. Although the Chams were at first able to drive out the invaders, decades of civil war left the country weak and vulnerable to conquest. Vietnamese ruler Le Thanh Tong seized Vijaya in 1471, killing 40,000 Chams, taking 30,000 prisoners, and annexing most of the country.
Aftermath
The devastating defeat inflicted at Vijaya marked the end of a powerful Cham state. Most of the aristocracy fled to Cambodia, leading to the establishment of a Cham minority there. Though a small Cham state continued to exist south of Cape Varella between Dai Viet and Cambodia after 1471, it was no match for its more powerful neighbors and was annexed by the Nguyen lords of southern Dai Viet.
Bibliography
Cœdès, George. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968.
‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. The Making of Southeast Asia. 2d ed. London: Allen and Unwin, 1983.
Majumdar, R. C. Champa: History and Culture of an Indian Colonial Kingdom in the Far East, Second to Sixteenth Century a.d. Delhi: Gian, 1985.
Pluvier, Jan M. Historical Atlas of South-East Asia. New York: E. J. Brill, 1995.
SarDesai, D. R. Southeast Asia: Past and Present. 3d ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994.