Wars of Polish Partition

At issue: The independence of Poland

Date: 1772–1795

Location: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Combatants: Poles vs. Russians, Prussians, and Austrians

Principal commanders:Polish, Tadeusz Kościuszko (1746–1817); Russian, Aleksandr V. Suvorov (1729–1800)

Principal battles: Zielence, Dubienka, Raclawice, Siege of Warsaw, Maciejowice

Result: The Third Partition of Poland

Background

Following the First Partition of Poland in 1772, King Stanisław Augustus Poniatowski and members of the Polish aristocracy made moves toward severing their ties with Russia. The Polish parliament (Sejm) met in 1788 with the idea of instituting massive reforms in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The changes involved increasing the size of the standing army, modernizing the taxation system, and strengthening the central power structure of the state. Russian attention was drawn away at this time because of a war with Turkey (1787–1792). The result of the parliamentary debates was the May 3 Constitution of 1791. The constitution was based on the ideas of the French Enlightenment, which would have completely overhauled the Polish state and could have stabilized its decline if it would have had time to be implemented. The key to its implementation was Russia’s continued involvement with Turkey. The Russo-Turkish War ended with the Treaty of Jassy on January 7, 1792—much sooner than Poland had hoped.

Catherine the Great was angered by what her protégé, Poniatowski, had tried to do. She called together her Polish aristocratic allies and ordered them to form an antireform alliance, which became known as the Targowica Confederation. In turn, the confederation requested Russian aid in crushing the reform movement in Poland. On May 18, 1792, Catherine ordered 97,000 Russian troops to aid the “Patriotic” Poles in retaking the Polish government from the Jacobin radicals.

Action

The Polish army had only 37,000 untried troops to face the invading Russians. Poniatowski had hoped for Prussian aid but Prussia decided to remain neutral and the Poles were forced to act alone. Prince Jozef Poniatowski (the king’s nephew and future marshal of France) defeated the Russians at Zielence (June 18, 1792) and Tadeusz Kościuszko held the Russians back at Dubienka (July 18, 1792). The king saw little chance for victory and decided to join the Targowica Confederation. Jozef Poniatowski and Kościuszko resigned their commissions rather than serve under a Russian puppet government. The major result of this war was the Second Partition of Poland, 1792, between Russia and Prussia, which was rewarded for its neutrality.

Russian heavy-handedness caused a tense situation to worsen. The Polish army was reduced to a mere 12,000 men, and a Russian army of occupation was forced on the Poles. Mass arrests were ordered of all those who opposed the puppet regime. General Antoni Madalinski ordered his brigade to march on Kraków with the idea of instigating a national insurrection against the Russians. On March 23, 1794, Kościuszko arrived to take command of the insurrectional army. Kościuszko marched out on April 4, moving northward toward Raclawice. At Raclawice, he defeated an entire Russian army, employing only 6,000 Polish troops. Warsaw rose up on April 17 under the leadership of Jan Kilinski. On April 22, Wilno was taken by Colonel Jakub Jasinski. A special Jewish regiment was raised by Colonel Berek Joselewicz, the first all-Jewish military formation since the Diaspora.

The Prussian troops entered the war with a march against Warsaw. Kościuszko led Polish troops into the battle against the Prussians at Rawka on May 6. Kościuszko was defeated and forced to fall back in Warsaw. The Prussian army continued south and took Kraków on June 16. Russian and Prussian forces now merged and moved on Warsaw. Kościuszko used earthen works and artillery to defend the city for two months. The city survived the assault by 40,000 allied troops. General Jan Henryk Dabrowski raised an army in western Poland and marched to the defense of Warsaw. He defeated a Prussian army at Bydgoszcz but was then forced into Prussia. Wilno soon fell to Russian forces. Austrian forces joined the allied army. General Aleksandr V. Suvorov was ordered to Poland with fresh Russian troops. Suvorov met up with Kościuszko at Maciejowice on October 10. Koś ciuszko became separated from his support column and was beaten by Suvorov. He and several other Polish officers were captured.

Tomasz Wawrzeski was named the new Polish commander. General Suvorov surprised the Poles and attacked Warsaw on November 4. He took the suburb of Praga and massacred the mainly Jewish inhabitants as a warning to the rest of Warsaw about further resistance. The Polish army withdrew, and the city surrendered. On November 16, General Wawrzeski was surrounded and captured with his army. The insurrection, except for a few minor rearguard actions, was over.

Aftermath

The end result of the Polish defeat was the final and Third Partition of Poland between Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Many Polish soldiers made their way to France, where they began to form Polish Legions under General Dabrowski and associated with the French army of Italy under the command of General Napoleon Bonaparte.

Bibliography

Davies, Norman. God’s Playground: A History of Poland. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.

Haiman, Miecislaus. Kosciuszko: Leader and Exile. New York: Kościuszko Foundation, 1977.

Lukowski, Jerzy. The Partitions of Poland. London: Longman, 1999.

Reddaway, W. F. The Cambridge History of Poland. New York: Octagon Books, 1971.

Zamoyski, Adam. The Last King of Poland. London: J. Cape, 1992.

‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. The Polish Way. London: John Murray, 1987.