Yuan Dynasty

The Yuan dynasty was a Mongol ruling family that formally began in 1271 after the rise to power of Genghis Khan. The first Yuan emperor, Kublai Khan, oversaw the completion of the Mongol takeover of China and the reunification of the country in 1279. Kublai Khan established a government in China that favored the Mongol newcomers but preserved many Chinese customs. Despite the repression of ethnic Chinese in their own country, the Yuan period was marked by significant expansion, prosperity, and the spread of international trade and diplomacy. Infighting, cultural clashes, and natural disasters weakened the Yuan, however, and the dynasty was unseated in China in 1368.

Background

The first known inhabitants of China settled near the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers thousands of years ago and are mainly known to modern historians through their archaeological legacies. By about 1600 Before the Common Era (BCE), advanced culture and writing were developing in China, and these began to flourish after about 1045 BCE.

Ancient China was ruled by dynasties, rulers who passed their authority through family links. The first such dynasty was the Xia, which ruled from approximately 2070 to 1600 BCE. Although they established the system of inherited governmental control and helped to found the modern country of China, the Xia are poorly known to historians today. Much information about them comes from legends told during later dynasties, which are of questionable accuracy.

The dynastic system continued for centuries, with various families winning control of the region. Some of the major dynastic families of antiquity included the Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han. Their reigns were punctuated by wars, expansions, divisions, and various relationships with surrounding peoples. Modern researchers know about them because of the extensive writings, artwork, and archaeological remains they left behind.

The dynastic system continued into the Common Era, which saw the reigns of families including the Jin, Sui, Tang, Liao, and Song. In 1115, the Jin dynasty formed under Jurchen Wanyan Aguda. Ten years later, it began winning control of the regions of China through conquests of the previously established Liao and Song dynasties. This Jin period, although established through violence, led to a time of reconciliation, peacemaking, and prosperity. However, this time of peace in China would not last. Rather than facing another internal uprising by a rival Chinese dynasty, China would experience a shocking attack from outside its borders.

In ancient times, the exact borders of China were ambiguous. Chinese rulers considered their land holdings in very broad terms, such as being everything under “Heaven.” Their sprawling and often-changing populations and kingdoms did, however, find some delineation in cases where neighboring territories were ruled by foreign groups. Even in these cases, the Chinese dynastic leaders often held significant political sway and sometimes even installed the rulers of neighboring kingdoms.

One neighboring group independent of Chinese control was the Mongols. The Mongols mainly consisted of tribes of nomadic farmers who raised horses, sheep, and goats in the area now part of modern Mongolia. Due to the cold and sparse lands in which they lived, the Mongols had to migrate frequently to find sufficient water and grazing areas for their livestock. In addition, they lived under the constant danger of diseases or natural disasters such as droughts, decimating their animal populations.

A young Mongol named Temujin, whose father had been a clan chief of the Borjigin tribe, envisioned his people taking a new path to a brighter destiny. Temujin stirred up the Mongol leadership and toppled one of its highest chieftains. He assembled faithful armies and led successful expeditions against neighboring peoples such as the Turkic Naiman and the Tatars, the latter of which was responsible for the murder of his father.

In 1206, Temujin took power over the Mongols under the name Genghis Khan (or Chinggis Khan) which meant “universal ruler.” His policies quickly revolutionized the Mongols’ traditional lifestyle. He brought together their disparate tribes and gave them a sense of unity and cooperation. He also redesigned the political and social structure of the Mongol people and lands using a hybrid military-feudal system. He arranged the tribes under his rule in an army-like structure, with strict laws and careful provisioning, and left a large legacy of military conquests. At the same time, however, Genghis Khan pushed for economic reforms and greater education, among other liberal policies.

The military leaning of Mongol society proved a perfect means for gaining land and power. In addition, it prompted a surge forward in technology and strategy for which the Mongols would become famous. Mongol forces, already adept in horsemanship, adopted stirrups and advanced bows that could be fired from horseback. They also revolutionized tactics such as massed arrow attacks and hit-and-run assaults on enemy forces. Genghis Khan’s desire to improve knowledge led to the Mongols absorbing much of the science and technology of the people they conquered.

Overview

Under Genghis Khan, the Mongol empire grew rapidly, and its forces became feared throughout Asia. One of their greatest conquests, however, still lay ahead. This was the enormous region of China, situated south of Mongol territory. In 1211, Mongols under Genghis Khan began to put pressure on northern China and its leaders of the Jin dynasty. Over the next four years, the Mongols wore away at the Jin, and in 1215, they overtook the Jin capital of Yanjing (known in modern times as Beijing).

From there, Mongol forces began a slow but steady process of expansion throughout other former Chinese territories. Northern China fell, and then the Mongols proceeded to the southern provinces that were at that time under the control of the powerful Song dynasty. Victory over the Song came in 1279, long after Genghis Khan had died and passed authority along a new dynasty. His grandson, Kublai Khan, oversaw the end of Chinese dynastic resistance and the consolidation of Mongol power throughout China.

The Mongols under Kublai Khan formally declared their new dynasty, known as the Yuan, as the rulers of China in 1271. The name “Yuan” signifies a center point or an origin, reflecting the Mongol’s belief in their own primacy. In the coming years, Yuan forces brutally wiped out Song loyalists. By 1279, the Yuan united the regions of China that had been governed separately since the ninth century. Perhaps ironically, it took a foreign occupation to bring Chinese unity, and this occupation would preserve many other Chinese customs over the coming generations.

As with prior Khans, Kublai was willing to borrow from the culture of the defeated people. His administration adopted robes and furniture similar to those of previous Chinese rulers. They also embraced some of the teachings of Confucius that were deeply set in Chinese culture, as well as pre-existing political divisions. However, these changes may have been largely symbolic, as the Mongols retained privileged status for themselves, giving their people advantages in government, economy, and society.

Kublai Khan established a social hierarchy based on the perceived loyalty of various regional and ethnic groups. The Mongols topped the social order. Beneath them were other Central Asian people or people with linguistic connections to the Mongols. The Chinese ranked in lower slots, with groups from northern China receiving some seniority over those from southern regions. The placement of southern peoples into the lowest rung likely reflected the fact that Song loyalists of the southern regions had so long defied the Yuan forces.

The Yuan period was also marked by an array of new social systems. Taxation fell unevenly upon the social classes, with the less-favored people typically taxed more harshly. Law enforcement was also notably skewed in favor of Mongol citizens, who generally faced lighter penalties for wrongdoing. Mongols also formed the police units that guarded the borders and ensured citizens’ compliance. Chinese citizens were not allowed to adopt the dress, language, or names of Mongols, nor were they permitted to carry weapons. Through these inequitable policies, the Yuan leadership hoped to assure control over the populace.

Despite the ongoing oppression of Chinese citizens, some aspects of Chinese culture persisted. The traditional tribute system, based on the giving of gifts to the Chinese ruler and the suppression of surrounding people, resumed under Kublai Khan. Although these acts were meant mainly to glorify and enrich himself and his loyalists, they also served to build Chinese prestige. They showed that China, while now only one aspect of an ever-growing Mongol Empire, was a powerful entity and hub of influence in Asia.

Meanwhile, Confucianism continued as an influential religion and many forms of traditional art thrived. Some forms of Chinese art, such as drama performed by live actors or puppets, appealed greatly to the Mongols and were heavily promoted. Other forms of expression, such as painting and poetry, were largely overlooked by authorities but not restricted in any significant way. Some historians credit the Mongols with melding with, instead of banning or destroying, established Chinese ways of life. In some cases, traditional Chinese customs actually strengthened under Mongol patronage.

Additionally, the Mongol takeover of China and subsequent expansion created new links between lands and peoples. The Mongol Empire eventually reached from present-day Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean and became a hub for meetings between the East and West. Kublai Khan built trade networks and hosted a variety of travelers and ambassadors, the most famous of whom was Marco Polo, who helped propagate new ideas as well as business opportunities. The military actions of the Mongols greatly expanded their territory and asserted their control over large stretches of Asia.

The Yuan dynasty was not to last, however. Following the successful reigns of Kublai Khan and then his grandson Temür Oljeitu, the dynasty experienced a period of tension. A long list of competing rulers, internal tensions between the Mongol and Chinese cultures, and a string of damaging natural disasters eventually caused Yuan power to deteriorate. Rebellions and coups followed, ultimately leading to the ousting of the Yuan dynasty from China in 1368. Following the Yuan dynasty, China would be ruled by the Ming and Qing dynasties before the entire dynastic system came to an end.

The Yuan dynasty left an enduring legacy of accomplishments. It is a historical example of the successes and problems with foreign leadership in an occupied land. Although conquerors, the Yuan dynasty also united, expanded, and improved China and life for most of the Chinese people as it facilitated a blending of cultures and acceptance of diversity. The Yuan dynasty saw science, technology, the arts, and government infrastructure and administration innovations. The enduring presence of references to the Yuan dynasty and the Mongols in twenty-first-century culture is a testament to the ancient dynasty's historical significance.

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