Connotation

Connotation is the secondary meaning of a word, with the literal definition, or denotation, being the first. Unlike denotation, connotation carries with it emotions, judgment, or other cultural associations. Connotation is shaped by both culture and the context in which the word is used.

Overview

The term connotation originated in Medieval Latin. The verb stem connotare meant a word had an association beyond its definition. Like literal meanings, connotations can change over time; they can also be characteristic of a region or group. It is extremely important that speakers and writers understand a word's connotation before using it. For example, the word "peculiar" can mean "unique," such as a species that is peculiar to a single island or different in an interesting way, such as the peculiar flavor of strawberries roasted in balsamic vinegar. Its connotation, however, is more often negative, meaning "odd" or "eccentric." Therefore, if a writer called attention to a woman's peculiar sense of fashion, intending it to mean distinctive, he or she might be surprised to learn that it was not taken as a compliment. Even a seemingly objective word like "young" can have a negative connotation if it is used in a certain way, such as to describe an adult behaving immaturely. By correctly choosing words with strong connotations, writers can deliver clear images to the reader.

Function of Connotation

Without connotation, words would have only one or two definitions. There would be little room for word play or symbolism, which would effectively eliminate most figures of speech. Language, especially in literature, depends upon connotation to create fresh images, call forth emotions, and provide levels of meaning. The connotative differences between the synonyms "slender" and "scrawny," "fragile" and "weak," and "sedentary" and "slothful" demonstrate the differences in the images they produce.

Describing a scene in terms that are too general does not provide such images. For example, to say "a woman made a snack" will not produce clear pictures or stir emotions. However, "Grandma slid a tray of fragrant ginger cookies from the oven" fills the senses with images and touches emotions and memories most readers have or can imagine.

Positive and Negative Connotation

While synonyms are words that mean essentially the same thing, such words are not necessarily interchangeable, often because of connotation. A series of words meaning "child," for example, can have wildly different connotations. "Toddler," "teenager," "juvenile," and "youngster" all mean "child" in a literal and fairly neutral sense, even though each brings a different image to mind. Words like "brat," "waif," "orphan," and "ragamuffin" have stronger connotations, all of them negative. "Cherub," "schoolboy," and "little" one have more positive connotations.

Words with positive connotations—that is, those used to be complimentary or to evoke upbeat emotions, may be used to avoid offending others as much as to provide a positive image. Many words with positive connotations have evolved in response to cultural sensitivity regarding differences among people. For instance, "slim" has a more positive connotation than "skinny," "plus-size" has replaced "overweight," and "handicapped" is seen as more positive than "crippled." In that sense, some changes in language are euphemistic, in that they change a straightforward but potentially offensive expression into one that is imprecise but more positive.

Euphemism and Dysphemism

A euphemism is a term people use to avoid insensitive or offensive words or phrases. For example, people say "passed away," rather than "died," and call the "toilet facilities" on a highway a "rest area" or "comfort station." Euphemisms abounded in the Victorian era, when "chicken breast" became "white meat" and the word "leg" was considered so suggestive that it was replaced with "limb." Euphemisms can be difficult for people outside a culture to understand, even when they speak the same language. Expressions in British, Canadian, Australian, and American English differ greatly and can lead to misunderstandings and even offense. For example, in British English, the word "scheme" means "a plan" or "a method of classifying," such as a health insurance scheme. In American English, "scheme" has more sinister undertones, implying dishonesty or an illegal plot.

Dysphemism is the opposite of euphemism. It means using words with negative connotations to attack or deliberately offend another person or group. Examples include racist slurs, political attacks, and religious insults. Dysphemism is used to express anger, distain, or hatred or to criticize, humiliate, or show contempt for the subject.

Words as Symbols

Connotation provides the basis for symbolic meanings of words. Symbols are shortcuts to understanding; they provide instant recognition using only a word or two to stand for a fully developed idea. While some symbols are unique to particular cultures or peer groups, others are more widely recognized. For example, most people in western cultures understand that a rose represents love and a dove is a symbol of peace. Negative symbols include sharks, which exemplify predatory behavior, and lemons, which stand for hopelessly faulty vehicles. Even colors serve as symbols—yellow for cowardice, red for passion, green for envy, and blue for sadness.

Metaphor and Simile

Figures of speech use symbols, metaphors, and similes, as well as personification to take the reader beyond literal meanings and to encourage imagination and interpretation. Concrete words alone cannot express the deep feelings and connections among people that symbolic language does. In poetry, words and phrases often describe a concrete picture or experience, but reach the reader more deeply through the connotations of its words and phrases. For example, Robert Frost's "The Road Not Taken" is a metaphor in which the poet describes coming to a fork in the road and having to decide which direction to take. While he describes choosing the less-worn path, the reader knows that words like "road" and "path" also represent the journey through life. The poem expresses Frost's choice to take "the road less traveled," as he became an accomplished poet rather than remaining simply a farmer or teacher.

Bibliography

Barber, Russell J. and Frances Berdan. The Emperor's Mirror: Understanding Cultures through Primary Sources. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1998. Print.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=Lj90GjAotsoC&pg=PA106&dq=Dysphemism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jhFdVJCtBMv2yQTb7YKICg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Dysphemism&f=false>

"Connotation." Literary Devices. Literary Devices, 2014. Web. 7 Nov. 2014.

<http://literarydevices.net/connotation/>

"Dysphemism." Literary Devices. Literary Devices, 2014. Web. 7 Nov. 2014.

<http://literarydevices.net/dysphemism/>

Frost, Robert. "The Road Not Taken." Mountain Interval. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1916. Print.

<http://books.google.com/books?id=j6auAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mountain+Interval&hl=en&sa=X&ei=h9FgVKTQMcqqyATh-IG4BQ&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Mountain%20Interval&f=false>