English as a Second Language for Adults

Adult English language learners are different from typical classroom learners. Their motivation to learn the language is strong but they often have much less free time to learn than elementary or secondary school students. Teachers must know individual student's goals and help students work toward these while attempting to keep student motivation high. This is not always easy as adult students are not always able to attend class, must oftentimes leave early, and may not be able complete every assignment. The varied ability levels of students in a typical English language classroom can further complicate teaching this segment of learners.

Keywords Competency-Based Education; English Language Learner; Functional Language; Grammar; Journal Writing; Language; Non-Literate Adults; Pronunciation; Roman Alphabet; Semi-Literate Adults; Vocational Education

Overview

Every day in classrooms, church basements, and conference rooms throughout the country, adults from a variety of backgrounds and countries are learning how to speak and understand English. Some of these students already speak and understand some of the language, others may be able to read it, and still others may come from cultures that do not use the Roman alphabet and must therefore learn the unique sound and symbol correspondence that is the cornerstone of the English language. Adult learners' goals are many and varied; most students know that English language learning isn't just acquiring the skills to speak the language. Learning the language means also understanding the values and sensibilities of American culture (Johnston, 2003).

This task isn't easy for the student or the teacher. Regardless of their reasons for taking an ESL class, adult students can quickly feel frustrated. In many cases, they do not learn language that will be immediately useful in their daily lives, and they may be bored by learning verb tenses or where to correctly insert an adjective. Adult learners require the efficient acquisition of useful and pertinent language, and some types of curriculum (e.g., competency-based ESL classes) are designed to do this. The flexibility of the organization of some of these classes make it possible for teachers to use their own best practices and techniques as well as any materials they have acquired that may make it for the students to assimilate into their new country and culture (Behrens, 1983).

The Adult Learner

Adult English language learners have diverse backgrounds. Immigrating to the United States from almost every country in the world, these students are usually highly motivated to assimilate quickly into the American culture, find a job, and, if they have children, ensure they are enrolled in a school or other appropriate programs and can easily transition into their new environment. However, even with these common goals, there is no typical adult ESL student (Graham & Walsh, 1996).

Some adult learners may come to the United States with little from their native countries. Others may be highly educated in their countries of origin and may even hold professional degrees, certifications, or licenses. These professional adults are often unable to find the same type of employment they previously held because their professional, higher-level degrees cannot be used in the United States and they must take additional certification tests. Because they cannot speak English, it is difficult for these people to pass the necessary tests or even to attain any kind of employment in the United States. It is essential for these adults to enroll in an English class and learn to read, write, and speak English as soon as they are able (Jolly & Jolly, 1974).

Adult students usually attend English language classes for a few basic reasons. Some adults need to learn the language to get a job. Others may already have jobs but need to acquire greater fluency in order keep their positions or to be promoted. Some need English instruction in order to pass the GED test or to take college classes. Still others may be retired or alone and use the class as a way to interact with other non-natives (Graham & Walsh, 1996).

In most cases, the students are in class because they want to be, not because they have to be (although some students may have been required to attend English classes by their employer). Some older students, often those who are retired and looking for social interaction, may think they cannot learn or are too old to learn, but generally they are excited at the prospect (Graham & Walsh, 1996). Despite their reasons for enrolling in the class and their preconceived ideas, most students come to class motivated to do well. The teacher's challenge is to maintain that motivation for the duration of the course (Graham & Marsh, 1996).

The Adult ESL Teacher

The ESL teacher is the students' crucial link to learning the language. Most students don't realize that many adult ESL teachers don't hold a certification to teach and are creating their own strategies as they work with methods of teaching English (Johnston, 2003). It's an uphill battle—some teachers are hired and assigned a classroom without any training prior to their first class (Graham & Walsh, 1996).

Resources

Instructors often don't get much help from their peers. Adult English language teachers, even those working for a college or university, are typically not a part of the mainstream college teaching faculty. Many language classes are held in community centers, the unused rooms and basements of churches, and public library conference rooms. Often the adult ESL class is run independently of other meetings or classes run by the hosting organization, and the teacher works alone except for occasional staff meetings or social functions. Staff development meetings usually do not cover teaching strategies but instead focus on the types of paperwork necessary to comply with government funding regulations (Orem, 2001). Because of the unique situations inherent in this type of teaching job, and students' varied abilities, goals, availability, motivation, and prior knowledge of the language, teaching the adult English as a Second Language (ESL) learner is an exceptional opportunity.

Student Expectations

Adult language students often come to class with fixed ideas about the education process, which they bring from their native countries. Teachers in some cultures are held in the highest esteem and greatly respected, much more so than in the United States. Some ESL teachers may not be prepared for this type of attention or admiration. Students from other cultures may expect a more personal relationship with their teacher than is typical of regular teacher/student relationships in the United States. Adult ESL teachers need to be aware of these types of cultural differences before class even begins and be prepared to explain to students the teachers' role as well as how the classroom will be run (Graham & Walsh, 1996).

Assessing & Placing Students

An important first step for the ESL teacher is to assess students and place them in appropriate class levels. This process usually consists of an oral or written test, or both, and should occur prior to the beginning of the first class. Students who are in a class that is too easy or too difficult for them will likely lose interest and stop attending (Graham & Walsh, 1996).

After students have been placed in appropriate beginning, intermediate, or advanced English language classes, the teacher will often ask them what they need from the class to improve their lives in the United States. This is an efficient way for the teacher to plan a course that is relevant, rigorous, and appropriate for the language needs of the particular class group. Although not all students will be able to articulate their reasons for taking the course, it is still possible for the teacher to get a good idea of most students' aims. Each student's goals should be assessed informally as the instructor is able and as communication is eased. By knowing students' goals, the instructor is able to help each student feel that progress is being made, and students will be more likely to participate in the class and maintain high levels of interest and motivation (Graham & Walsh, 1996).

In general, adult learners will need and want to know the skills necessary for them to participate fully in daily life, their jobs, further education opportunities, and the lives of the school-aged children (Morgan, 1998).Curriculum can be planned around these goals.

Applications

Since most adult language learners are not able to spend considerable time in a classroom, the time they do spend there must be planned to be well-structured, relevant, and rigorous. Students who do not feel they are improving their conversational language skills may stop coming to class. Family and work obligations already take up quite a bit of the adult learners' time, and it is probable that any activities that doesn't garner measurable and obvious results will be removed from the busy adult's schedule (Behrens, 1983). Students can be shown their progress at times during the class by conducting informal measures such as individual conversations with students, quizzes, and reviewing homework together (Graham & Walsh, 1996).

The Adult ESL Classroom

The very nature of the language teaching profession is often significantly different from that of general education (Johnston, 2003). Adult ESL teachers have unique predicaments in planning their class. Throughout the United States, students in kindergarten through high school generally attend school five days a week. They are expected to show up on time, be prepared, and have a valid excuse if they will miss class. Leaving class before the instructional time is completed is not accepted except in special circumstances. In this way, all students are taught the same material at about the same pace, and the teacher is able to plan lessons that build on one another. The occasional student who is out of school for an extended period of time is given remediation as necessary to catch up with the class.

This is not the case with adult English language classes. A typical adult ESL class lasts for three hours and is held two or three days a week. At any given time during the class, students can enter or leave the classroom. Because of work and home obligations, the adult learner is often not able to come to every class and it is common for some students to attend just one class a week, or only be able to drop in every couple of weeks. Family commitments may mean that assigned readings or other homework intended to reinforce lessons are not completed. Adding to the complications of teaching adults is the fact that most ESL classes have an open enrollment policy. At any given class session, new students with varying ability levels may be joining a class (Cutshall, 2002).

Adult students are unique from young learners in other ways, too. Most prominent is that adult learners approach learning in an experience-centered manner. That is, they have a stockpile of prior knowledge with which to link newly acquired information. In general, they don't study subjects that may one day be relevant to them—they tend to learn more about subjects that already appeal to them. Younger learners have more of a subject-based approach in their classrooms (Behrens, 1983). Even so, planning lessons that are engaging for all adult language learning students can be difficult for the instructor. Some adult language learners have scant experience interacting with others in a classroom. They may not be accustomed to working with the types of materials and textbooks that are often a part of the ESL curriculum or within the typical classroom environment. Although these students may have an immediate need to learn as much of the language as possible, just getting them acclimated to the learning situation and classroom culture may be time-consuming for teacher and student (Behrens, 1983).

Planning Lessons

All of this organized upheaval makes teaching English to adults especially tricky. The continuity that is a mainstay of the traditional classroom teaching process cannot be counted on, and teachers need to constantly make accommodations and adjustments to the curriculum and schedule. It takes a committed and flexible teacher to teach an adult ESL class well.

Reviewing and reinforcing previously taught material is difficult if not impossible. Most lessons must be planned as stand-alone lessons that do not draw upon any prior knowledge from previous classes. A good portion of each lesson must be a review of previously taught material in an attempt to keep everyone in attendance as much on track as possible (Cutshall, 2002).

As they plan their lessons, teachers must keep in mind that the goal of most adult ESL students is typically become fluent enough to find a job. Indeed, finding a paying position for which they are qualified is often one of the most difficult tasks for non-English speaking adults. For that reason, instruction should target specific employment-related areas of the language. Assessing which material is relevant to job-seeking adults is often a tricky process as ESL instructors attempt to make their limited time with the students as useful as possible (Morgan, 1998). Vocational ESL for adults is specifically geared toward those seeking employments in semi-skilled and technical fields. These short programs have grown as vocational education has grown.

Some teachers make the textbook the cornerstone of their lesson planning. English language course textbooks are usually organized into four component areas. These include grammar, pronunciation, writing, and reading. Adult learners are instructed in oral, or conversational English, and the units consist of typical conversations that may occur in everyday environments like a bank or doctor's office. Often though, conversations that take place in these environments vary from the typical conversations rehearsed in class. Teaching students to use and, as necessary, revise these typical words, phrases, and can be invaluable. Knowing how to conjugate verbs, for example, is not useful if students do not know how and when to use the different conjugations. It is important then for teachers to individualize instruction so students are able to learn conversational language that is appropriate to their lives (Behrens, 1983).

Functional Language Teaching

Adult learners are able to learn well in classrooms that incorporate a variety of learning and teaching methods and materials. These include whole- and small-group discussions, class games and activities, and writing strategies and activities (King, 2000). One effective way of teaching adults English is functional language teaching. Developed in Europe in the 1970s, functional language learning attempts to make language acquisition more meaningful, adaptable, and relevant to the learner (Behrens, 1983). This method asserts that language can't be taught in isolation, or through chunks of conversations. Instead, natural contexts must be used, and these contexts need to be pertinent to students' lives. When the students are able to realize the links to their own lives, they will be motivated to continue to work toward their goals. Clear learning objectives are always communicated to the students and, although grammar and vocabulary are part of the functional language learning curriculum, they are taught only within the context of the particular function being addressed (Behrens, 1983).

Journal Writing

Journal writing is a teaching strategy that can work well with adult language learners. Having the adults reflect on what they are learning as they practice the language helps them organize and retain lesson content. The uses of the journal can vary based on the teacher's confidence and the purpose of the writing but, in general, journal writing is a good opportunity for students to review and practice a variety of language skills, from applying rules of grammar to a running written dialogue with the instructor (Orem, 2001).

Journals in the ESL “classrooms are seen as opportunities to practice correct language forms. Teachers may focus on error correction and can use student writing samples to glean feedback about how well students are applying the rules of grammar” (Orem, 2001, p. 73). In an attempt to keep students' motivation and enthusiasm high, teachers may also choose to “inform students at the beginning of the activity that student journals will be assessed for content and not for form” (Orem, 2001, p. 74). Teachers will be able to assess which method works best for their group of students.

In most situations, difficulties in learning the English language mainly have to do with learning vocabulary. Students may have trouble remembering what a word means, with which words it is used, the contexts in which it is used, and its correct usage. Difficulties also abound with learning grammar. Mastering word order, verb tenses, and correct nouns and prepositions all take time (Graham & Walsh, 1996). Students will often get frustrated as they tackle more words and more grammar situations. Motivation will stay high if students enjoy coming to class and the other students there. Encouraging interaction among students will help individual students feel like part of the class (Graham & Walsh, 1996).

Non-Literate & Semi-Literate Students

Some students will need remediation outside the regular English language class. Occasionally, adults may arrive at the ESL class with varying literacy skills in their native language. These students may be non-literate, semi-literate, or be literate in a language that does not use the Roman alphabet (Behrens, 1983).

In these cases, adult learners will need literacy training as well as ESL instruction. The non-literate adult will need the most remediation and will need a skilled teacher who has previously worked with non-literate adult ESL learners. Semi-literate adult learners have an average of three years of formal education and are likely to have some literacy skills. Those adults who have no experience at all with the Roman alphabet are often literate in their own language but will need to learn how to work with the letters and numbers that make up the Roman alphabet. They will also need to become proficient with the sound-symbol correspondence that is unique to the English language (Behrens, 1983). Depending on the teacher's experience and the size of the class, these students will be placed in a classroom setting that will ensure their progress.

When teachers work with students who are non-literate, they often wonder whether they should be starting them with English literacy or literacy in their own languages. The answer must be individualized for each student. If adult students are native to a language that uses the Roman alphabet, it may be fine to teach them English literacy first. If students are from cultures using another type of alphabet, it may be better for them to work with someone who can give them literacy instruction in their native languages. In this way, students' native cultures are preserved and students will be able to communicate with friends and family in their native countries via mail and email. This is especially true of students from countries with rich cultural traditions, like China, Vietnam, and other countries with their own unique alphabet system (Behrens, 1983).

Terms & Concepts

Competency-Based Education: Competency-based education emphasizes a cluster of skills having to do with one job, activity, or situation

English Language Learner: English language learners are students who are acquiring English as their second language.

Functional Language: Functional language is the ability to accomplish communication through language.

Journal Writing: Journal writing is an instructional tool intended to allow students to write their reflections and thoughts about concepts learned in the classroom.

Non-Literate Adults: Non-literate adults are those who are not able to read or write in their native language.

Semi-Literate Adults: Semi-literate adults are those who are barely able to read or write, or have poor skills in reading and/or writing.

Vocational Education: Vocational education is educational training that provides practical knowledge in a particular field or industry

Bibliography

Behrens, S., ed. (1983).Teaching ESL to Adults. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Cutshall, S. (2002). One Teacher's First Year in an Adult ESL Classroom. Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers, 77 , 30. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=5805342&site=ehost-live

Gebhard, J. (2006). Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Giannakopoulou, A., Uther, M., & Ylinen, S. (2013). Enhanced plasticity in spoken language acquisition for child learners: Evidence from phonetic training studies in child and adult learners of English. Child Language Teaching & Therapy, 29, 201–218. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88307308

Graham, C. & Walsh, M. (1996). Adult Education ESL Teachers Guide. Retrieved October 24, 2007, from Brigham Young University http://humanities.byu.edu/elc/teacher/teacherguidemain

Hansun Zhang, W. (2014). Managing Control and Connection in an Adult ESL Classroom. Research in the Teaching of English, 49, 52–74. Retrieved October 16, 2014 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=97504820

Johnston, B. (2003). Values in English Language Teaching. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Jolly C. & Jolly, R. (1974). When You Teach English as a Second Language. Brooklyn, NY: Book-Lab Inc.

Kaushanskaya, M., Jeewon, Y., Van Hecke, S., & Oetting, J. (2013). Word learning in adults with second-language experience: Effects of phonological and referent familiarity. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 56, 667–678. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90496085

King, K. (2000). The Adult ESL Experience: Facilitating Perspective Transformation in the Classroom. Adult Basic Education, 10 , 69. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=3691975&site=ehost-live

Madrigal-Hopes, D. L., Villavicencio, E., Foote, M. M., & Green, C. (2014). Transforming English Language Learners' Work Readiness: Case Studies in Explicit, Work-Specific Vocabulary Instruction. Adult Learning, 25, 47–56. Retrieved October 16, 2014 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=95517259

Morgan, B. (1998). The ESL Classroom. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Orem, R. (2001) Journal Writing in Adult ESL: Improving Practice Through Reflective Writing. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 90, 69. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9178927&site=ehost-live

Perry, K. H., & Hart, S. J. (2012). 'I'm just kind of winging it': Preparing and supporting educators of adult refugee learners. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56, 110–122. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=82611496

Suggested Reading

Auerbach, E., Barahona, B. et. al. (1996). Adult ESL: From the Community to the Community. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Ayliff, D. D. (2011). Researching the effects of teaching grammar rules to English second language adult learners. South African Journal of Higher Education, 25, 397–411. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=82584896

Clahsen, H., Balkhair, L., Schutter, J., & Cunnings, I. (2013). The time course of morphological processing in a second language. Second Language Research, 29, 7–31. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85410380

Cutshall, S. (2002). One Teacher's First Year in an Adult ESL Classroom. Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers, 77 , 30. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=5805342&site=ehost-live

From the Classroom to the Workplace: Teaching ESL to Adults, (1983). Baltimore, MD: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Graham, C. & Walsh, M. (1996). Adult Education ESL Teachers Guide. Retrieved October 24, 2007, from Brigham Young University http://humanities.byu.edu/elc/teacher/teacherguidemain

McKay, H. & Tom, A. (1999). Teaching Adult Second Language Learners. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Parrish, B. (2004). Teaching Adult ESL: A Practical Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill ESL/ELT.

Robinson, J. & Selman, M. (2001) Partnerships in Learning: Teaching ESL to Adults. Ontario: Pippin Publishing.

Wright, A., Betteridge, A., & Buckby, M.(2006). Games for Language Learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Yin Lam, L. (2013). Telling the Life Stories of Adult Immigrants Learning English as a Second Language in the Midwest: A Chronotopic Approach Informed by Bakhtin's Forms of Time and of the Chronotype in the Novel. Journal of Research & Practice for Adult Literacy, Secondary & Basic Education, 2, 22–34. Retrieved October 16, 2014 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89524510