Inuit

• CATEGORY: Tribe
• CULTURE AREA: Arctic
• LANGUAGE GROUP: Eskimo-Aleut
• PRIMARY LOCATION: West Alaska, North Alaska, Arctic Canada (including Labrador), Greenland
• POPULATION SIZE: 9,011 in the United States (3,337 Eskimo, 5,674 Inupiat; US Census, 2020); 70,545 in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2021); 56,367 in Greenland (IWGIA, 2020)

The Inuit are one of the two major branches of the Eskimo family, the other being the Yupik of southwestern Alaska, southern Alaska, St. Lawrence Island, and Siberia. Inuit are distinguished from Yupik on the basis of both culture and language. The Inuit are distributed over the northern tier of the North American continent from Alaska to Greenland and have evolved a lifestyle which allows for efficient adaptation to a cold and harsh habitat.

While the term “Inuit” (meaning “people”) is an appropriate designation for all the northern Eskimo groups, there are more specific self-designations for different Inuit subgroups: “Iñupiat” in North Alaska, “Inuvialuit” in the western Canadian Arctic, “Inummaariit” in the eastern Canadian Arctic, and “Kalaallit” for Greenland.

Environment

With a few exceptions, most Inuit groups inhabit Arctic tundra north of the tree line. The climate is harsh and characterized by pronounced seasonality in temperature and light conditions. Those areas north of the Arctic Circle experience varying periods of continuous sunlight in midsummer and continuous darkness in midwinter. For example, in the community of Barrow, located at the northernmost tip of Alaska, the sun does not rise above the horizon for two months from November to January, while there is continuous sunlight from May through July. Because of extreme cold, high winds, and perennially frozen soil (permafrost), trees are unable to thrive in the Arctic. Even in summer, very little sunlight hits the Arctic, resulting in a low level of biological productivity for Arctic tundra, lakes, streams, and oceans. Because of this low level of productivity, most Inuit were forced to be at least seasonally nomadic in their subsistence efforts.

Physical Characteristics

Like the Aleut and Yupik, the Inuit display physical characteristics which indicate their relatively recent Eurasian origins. Eskimo-Aleut populations are more closely related genetically to Siberian groups, such as the Chukchee and Koryak, than to North American Indians living to the south. Many experts believe that the physical and linguistic evidence suggests that these groups represent a separate and more recent migration into the Western hemisphere.

Archaeology and History

The Inuit are the direct descendants of Thule whale hunters who moved from Alaska into Arctic Canada and Greenland around the end of the first millennium CE, a time coinciding with the Medieval Warming Period. The Thule are believed to have replaced the earlier Dorset populations, which had lived in these regions since about three thousand years before the present. The linguistic and cultural uniformity of contemporary Inuit groups is the direct result of this rapid spread of Thule culture. As the Thule population spread throughout Greenland and northern Canada, different groups adapted to slightly different ecological conditions. During the Little Ice Age (1600-1850 CE), the climate once again cooled, resulting in changes in subsistence routines throughout most of the Eskimo region. This period led to the development of historic Inuit culture.

Contacts with Europeans probably first occurred sometime after the establishment of the Norse colonies in Greenland around 985 CE. From the late sixteenth century onward, numerous naval expeditions set out from Europe in search of the Northwest Passage. These resulted in repeated, if fleeting, contacts with Inuit groups throughout the North. The intensification of whaling in the late nineteenth century had a more substantial impact upon Inuit groups throughout the Arctic. Not only did whalers initiate an active trade in southern manufactured goods, but they also introduced infectious diseases that took a substantial toll in lives in some areas. With the collapse of whaling at the beginning of the twentieth century, many Inuit took up trapping as a way to support themselves and obtain valued southern commodities offered by independent traders or large trading companies like the Hudson’s Bay Company and the Alaska Commercial Company.

Economy and Subsistence

At contact, the Inuit were highly specialized hunters and fishers, utilizing a subsistence routine based upon the seasonal exploitation of both marine and land resources. For many groups, a summer “land” phase involved hunting and fishing in small, scattered family groups on the tundra, while a winter “maritime” phase involved exploitation of various marine mammals (whales, walrus, seals) either along the coast or on the frozen ocean, often in larger social groupings. Regional variation in subsistence routines was contingent upon ice conditions and the availability of game. In North Alaska, for example, walrus and bowhead whale hunting constituted an important part of subsistence efforts, while in certain regions of the Central Arctic, seals were the primary animal resource. In the interior regions of Alaska and Canada, Inuit groups were heavily dependent upon caribou herds.

Religion and Ritual

The religious practices of the Inuit, like those of all Eskimo groups, were largely oriented toward regulating human relationships with the animal spirit world. Shamanism was highly developed, and illness was usually explained with reference to violations of taboos. It was generally believed throughout the region that animals were not caught by hunters but gave themselves up to the individuals who followed the necessary rituals, maintained their equipment properly, and kept a respectful attitude toward the animals they hunted. Helping spirits and amulets were often important for hunting success. In most regions, ceremonies were followed to appease and thank the spirit of a recently caught animal. In the Central Arctic, it was common for a recently caught seal to be given a drink of fresh water. Considerably more elaborate procedures were followed in North Alaskan whaling communities to greet and thank the whale for giving itself up to a community, culminating at the end of whaling season with the Nalukatok (blanket toss) celebration.

Cold Adaptation

The primary method of adapting to the cold throughout the region was cultural. The preparation of tailored fur parkas, mitts, and boots was an essential survival strategy, especially in those areas with extreme subzero winter temperatures. The snowhouse of the Central Arctic Inuit and the semi-subterranean communal house of the West Greenlanders and North Alaskans were efficient in insulating their human inhabitants from the cold. Cold tolerance was also aided by a highly thermogenic diet based on fat and protein. Such diets were effective in raising the basal metabolic rate of the Inuit, so they could withstand long periods of cold exposure. Some evidence also suggests that hereditary factors may be involved, since Inuits are reported to have a very efficient warming response (cold-induced vasodilation) in the extremities. Inuits are also documented to have fewer sweat glands on the body, a phenomenon which aids in keeping clothes dry and warm.

Contemporary Social and Political Status

The Inuit of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland now live in centralized villages and towns that are supported by schools, medical facilities, government offices, retail stores, and other social amenities. Many Inuit continue to be highly involved in subsistence hunting and fishing, often sharing harvested food with a large network of kinsmen. Hunting and fishing are now accomplished with the help of rifles, snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, and boats with inboard and outboard motors. In many communities, wage employment and social assistance are the primary means of support. Aside from the government sector, resource extraction industries employ many Inuit, often on a rotational basis. The industry of Native American arts and crafts has also been an important source of income for many Inuit communities. A number of regional, national, and international Inuit organizations represent the interests of Inuit to various government agencies. The Inuit Circumpolar Conference, for example, was established in 1977 to bring together the Inuit and Yupik of the circumpolar North to address important social, political, economic, and environmental issues. Land claim settlements in Alaska and Canada have resulted in the creation of regional and village corporations, which are active in northern investment and business development. Many of these corporations have a cultural resource component that sponsors archaeological and oral history research. In 1979, a Home Rule government was established in Greenland, effectively releasing the Greenlanders from Danish colonialism. Although living standards and health conditions have improved dramatically for most Inuit, social problems such as suicide, alcohol and drug abuse, unemployment, and underemployment remain significant.

Bibliography

Balikci, Asen. The Netsilik Eskimos. Garden City Natural History Press, 1970.

Burch, Ernest S., and Werner Forman. The Eskimos. U of Oklahoma P, 1988.

Chance, Norman A. The Iñupiat and Arctic Alaska. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1990.

Condon, Richard. Inuit Youth: Growth and Change in the Canadian Arctic. Rutgers UP, 1987.

Damas, David, ed. Arctic. In Handbook of North American Indians, edited by William Sturtevant. Smithsonian Institution, 1984.

"Indigenous Peoples in Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland)." IWGIA, www.iwgia.org/en/kalaallit-nunaat-greenland.html. Accessed 11 Sept. 2024.

Jacobs, Martina, and James Richardson, eds. Arctic Life: Challenge to Survive. Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1983.

Sanchez-Rivera, Ana I., et al. "A Look at the Largest American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes and Villages in the Nation, Tribal Areas and States." US Census, 3 Oct. 2023, www.census.gov/library/stories/2023/10/2020-census-dhc-a-aian-population.html. Accessed 11 Sept. 2024.