Mongolian literature
Mongolian literature encompasses a range of writings produced in the Mongolian languages, reflecting the unique cultural and historical context of Mongolia. Rooted in oral traditions, its written forms emerged over nine hundred years ago, with significant influences from neighboring cultures, particularly those of China and the former Soviet Union. Classic works like *The Secret History of the Mongols* and the *Epic of King Geser* epitomize the early literary heritage, documenting the rise of the Mongol Empire and the rich sociocultural traditions of its people.
The period known as the Mongolian Renaissance (16th–19th centuries) marked a resurgence in literature, characterized by historical chronicles and the integration of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as a blending of fact and folklore. Following Mongolia's independence in the early 20th century and the establishment of a Communist government, literature adopted socialist themes, with notable figures like Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj emerging as key contributors to modern literary identity.
After the fall of socialism in 1989, Mongolian literature experienced a revitalization, with a greater freedom for authors to explore diverse themes and perspectives. Recent works, such as Oyungerel Tsedevdamba's *The Green-Eyed Lama*, have begun to reach international audiences, offering insights into Mongolia's complex history and cultural evolution.
Mongolian literature
Mongolian literature is any piece of writing composed in the Mongolian family of languages. Although Mongolia is among the largest countries in the world, it has a small population and, as a result, a comparatively limited literary legacy that does not extend far beyond Central Asia. As with many other cultures, written works evolved from the oral traditions of its indigenous peoples. Mongolian literature has served as a reflection of the national culture of Mongolia since the emergence of written languages in the region more than nine hundred years ago. Its literature has been strongly influenced by its powerful Soviet and Chinese neighbors.
Several of its ancient works, particularly The Secret History of the Mongols and the Epic of King Geser (which may be the longest written work in the world at twenty million verses), are among the most famous examples of classical epic literature. These works offer important details about the development of the Mongol Empire and the sociocultural traditions of the early Mongol peoples. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Mongols controlled one of the most powerful empires in the world and, centuries later, Mongolian authors were still regularly revisiting this legacy in biographical chronicles and historical novels.
Early History
The earliest written book in the Mongolian canon remains perhaps its most publicized work. The Secret History of the Mongols (Mongγol-un niγuča tobčiyan in the traditional Mongolian language) was written by an unknown author sometime shortly after Genghis Khan's death in 1227. The last line of the text notes that it was written in the Year of the Rat in the traditional twelve-year Chinese calendar, meaning that it was likely composed in either 1228 or 1240. The book is presented in prose, although many of the characters speak in verse. It also includes songs, epic mythology, traditional poetry, and details about the daily lives of thirteenth-century Mongols.
The book offers a mythologized version of the life of Genghis Khan (born Temüjin), perhaps the greatest leader of the Mongol Empire. It begins by assigning a mythological genealogical origin to Genghis Khan dating back to the magical blue wolf and fallow doe that gave rise to his family. The remainder of the book details Temüjin's transformation into Genghis Khan and his eventual conquest of vast stretches of Central Asia. Ultimately, it is intended to create an epic legacy for the ancestors of Genghis Khan and his Borjigin clan. It was traditional for Mongols to teach their clan history to young members through lengthy oral recitations. The Secret History of the Mongols is the first known written documentation of this form of oral history.
Other well-known works from the imperial era of Mongolian history include many traditional stories that were written down for the first time, such as "The Story of Chingis Khaan's Two Steeds" and "The Legend of Argasun, the Rhapsode." After the end of the Mongol period of regional dominance in the fourteenth century and their subsequent conquest by the Ming, Mongolian culture went into a period of significant decline and few written works emerged from this era.
Mongolian Renaissance
The middle phase of Mongolian literature, a period sometimes called the Mongolian Renaissance, encompasses works written between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. This era corresponds to a greater spirit of national unity among the various Mongol tribes and the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to the region in the late sixteenth century. Many of the works from this period are historical chronicles of the Mongol peoples. Among the best-known examples are two seventeenth-century texts, both called Altan Tobchi (Golden Summary), one of which was composed by a lama named Blo-bzang bstan-'jin in 1655. Another important seventeenth-century work is The Precious Summary of Sagang Sechen. Several of these texts include stories from The Secret History of the Mongols. By this point, however, Genghis Khan had been elevated into a mythological figure. Other stories from this era tended to be a mix of factual historical events and folklore. Translations of important Buddhist texts and dictionaries of the Mongolian language were other key works to emerge during this time.
Beginning in the eighteenth century, Mongolian writers began to adopt more traditional narrative styles like those found in China. Vanchinbalyn Injanashi was a novelist who lived in the Inner Mongolia region of China. His most famous work was the historical novel Köke Sudur (The Blue Chronicle), which chronicles the lives of Mongols during the era of Genghis Khan. Other works by Injanashi include two melodramatic romantic novels that were strongly influenced by Chinese literary themes. Other major authors from this era include Danjirabjai (or Ravjaa), a lama poet, and the translator Khasbuu, who adapted Chinese titles such as Hong Lou Meng into a Mongolian framework.
Twentieth-Century Works
Mongolia emerged from its relative global isolation in the early twentieth century. In 1911, it declared independence from China, and between 1921 and 1924, it established an increasingly Communist government with the support of the Soviet Union, with which it became closely aligned. In this environment, Mongolian literature assumed socialist and revolutionary overtones that exchanged Chinese influences for Soviet ones. Many young Mongolian writers were educated in the Soviet Union.
The literature from this period demonstrates greater experimentation in form and tone, but often relies on propagandist themes. One of the best known of these authors is Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj, a poet, dramatist, and novelist who is often regarded as the father of modern Mongolian literature. His canon reflected this political climate. Natsagdorj is known for the poem "Minii nutag" (My Native Land), which heaps praise upon his Mongolian homeland; such dramas as Three Fateful Hills and Ushaandar; and his founding of the Mongolian Writers Union in 1929. Other authors affiliated with Natsagdorj include Tsendiin Damdinsüren and Sonombaljiriin Buyannemekh. Many writers from this era were executed during the Stalinist purges of the late 1930s.
Oftentimes, texts from the post–World War II era tended to have folkloric undertones that represent a fusion of Mongolia's past and present. Other works, however, held up a more critical light to Mongolian culture. However, the Communist Mongolian leadership held a firm grip over Mongolian culture until 1989, when the country began to move away from its seventy-year socialist system. Many works that had previously been suppressed appeared in print for the first time, and Mongolian authors were given greater latitude to write freely. Some authors from this period include novelist and essayist Galsan Tschinag, author Ulziitugs Luvsandorj, and poets Hadaa Sendoo and Tseveendorjin Oidov.
Bibliography
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