Nubian Languages
Nubian languages are a group of languages spoken in northern Sudan and southern Egypt, specifically in the historical region of Nubia, which has a rich cultural heritage linked to one of Africa's earliest civilizations. Classified under the Nilo-Saharan language family, Nubian languages are characterized by complex vowel systems and tonal distinctions, which contribute to their unique linguistic features. The history of Nubian languages is intertwined with that of ancient Egypt, as the region experienced periods of both independence and rule under Egyptian influence.
Historically, the Nubian Kingdom of Kush and its capital, Meroe, played a significant role in the development of the Nubian languages. The introduction of Meroitic script marked an important phase in literacy, although its understanding remains limited today. Following the decline of the Meroitic Empire, Old Nubian emerged, derived from the Coptic alphabet, and was primarily used for religious texts.
Despite the historical richness of Nubian languages, they have faced decline due to sociopolitical changes, including the rise of Arabic following the spread of Islam and recent migrations caused by events such as the construction of the Aswan Dam. Currently, Nubian speakers, who also use Arabic, mainly communicate in two dialects: Mahas and Kenzi-Dongolawi, the latter further divided into its own dialects. Efforts are underway in some African nations to promote indigenous languages, including Nubian, within educational systems to help preserve them in the face of potential language endangerment.
Nubian Languages
The Nubian languages include a number of languages spoken in northern Sudan and along the Nile River in southern Egypt. This region is known as Nubia, and its people belong to one of the earliest civilizations of Northeastern Africa.
The Nubian languages are considered part of the Nilo-Saharan language family, which includes roughly two hundred diverse languages spoken by nearly thirty-five million people in northern Africa and the Nile River basin. Other Nilo-Saharan languages include Luo, which is spoken in Kenya, and Kanuri, which is spoken in Nigeria.
Nilo-Saharan languages tend to have complex vowel systems with many vowels and vowel features that change word meanings. These include vowel length, creakiness, breathiness, and tongue root. The languages are tonal, which means they use varied pitch to distinguish meanings.
History and Classification
The Nubian languages have been greatly influenced by the history of the region. The settlement of Nubia can be traced to the fourth century BCE. Nubia and Egypt had a long, complex relationship during which Nubia was independent for some periods, ruled over Egypt for others, and was ruled by Egypt for still other periods. The interaction between Nubia and Egypt is reflected in many aspects of writing as well as in the arts and architecture.
An ancient Nubian kingdom called the Kingdom of Kush held its capital in a location known as Meroe. The development of the capital resulted in the Meroitic Empire. During a period from the third century BCE to the fourth century CE, Meroitic script was introduced and granted an official language status. Although hieroglyphics had been used for centuries, this new script consisted of a twenty-four-letter alphabet. This alphabet, which was based on Egyptian signs, was used throughout the Meroitic Empire even as other languages continued to be spoken. Because of the complexity of the language and missing documentation, scholars are still unable to understand more than a few words or phrases in the Meroitic language.
Literacy was widespread in the Meroitic Empire. The ruling families understood both Meroitic and Egyptian. However, during the fourth century CE, Meroitic political control declined and literacy decreased. Little is known about what caused the decline, but evidence suggests that the empire broke apart into distinct smaller kingdoms. In the sixth century CE, three Christian kingdoms appeared in Nubia, which began what is known as the Christian Era from the sixth to the fourteenth centuries. The three kingdoms included Makuria with its capital at Dongola, Nobatia with its capital at Faras, and Alwa with its capital at Allodia.
Records do not indicate exactly when, but there was a change from Meroitic to Old Nubian during the seventh and eighth centuries. The Old Nubian alphabet derived from the Egyptian Coptic alphabet, which was derived from the Greek alphabet. The language is preserved in ancient texts, most often Christian writings that were translated from Greek. Today, these documents can be found in the British Museum and the Berlin Museum. The Old Nubian Miracle of Saint Menas Manuscript in the British Museum is a significant document written in Old Nubian Script. Scholars often refer to this document when analyzing script and characters.
Old Nubian was written in all capital letters. It was mainly made up of Greek letters with three letters from Coptic and three letters that were unique to Nubian. It made wide use of nomina sacra, which are abbreviations for religious names. It had no gender nor any articles. The existence of an ancient literary tradition makes Nubian languages unique among Nilo-Saharan languages.
During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Nubian kingdoms fell and Islam replaced Christianity in the region. Arabic became the written and spoken language of most Egyptians, including the Coptic Church, which was the largest Christian church.
The Nubian languages suffered further decline during the last century due to political strife. As a result of the Mahdist Wars in the 1800s, many villagers were killed or dispersed. Then, after the Aswan Dam was built in the 1960s, many farmers lost their fields and had to migrate to towns in the North. This further dispersed speakers of the languages.
Geographic Distribution and Modern Usage
Nubian people continue to speak Nubian languages as well as Arabic. A Nubian script is no longer used, however. Speakers of Nubian languages must use either the Arabic or Latin alphabet for writing.
The modern Nubian language has two main dialects. The Mahas is spoken in the central area of Nubia. The other dialect, the Kenzi-Dongolawi group, is further divided into two dialects. Kenzi is spoken in northern Nubia and Dongolawi is spoken in southern Nubia.
Many Nilo-Saharan languages, including the Nubian languages, are endangered as speakers use more common languages, such as Arabic and Swahili. However, governments of African nations are working to integrate indigenous languages into the educational system along with the official European and national languages.
Bibliography
Browne, G. M. "Old Nubian Studies: Past, Present, and Future." Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam. Ed. W. V. Davies. London: British Museum Press, 1991. 286–93. Print.
Dalby, Andrew. Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More than 400 Languages. New York: Columbia UP, 2004. Print.
"Nubia: The Meroitic Period." UCL. University College London, 2002. Web. 23 Sept. 2015. <HYPERLINK "http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/nubia/meroitic.html" http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/nubia/meroitic.html>.
"Nubian Language." LookLex. LexicOrient, n.d. Web. 24 Sept. 2015. <http://i-cias.com/e.o/nubian‗l.htm>.
Satzinger, Helmut. "Old Nubian—Black African Language of Most Ancient Attestation." Wiki.Verbix. n.p., n.d. Web. 23 Sept. 2015. <http://wiki.verbix.com/uploads/Languages/OldNubian.pdf>
Thompson, Irene, and Jon Phillips. "Nilo-Saharan Language Family." About World Languages. Technology Development Group, 11 Apr. 2013. Web. 24 Sept. 2015. <http://aboutworldlanguages.com/nilo-saharan-language-family>.