Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics focuses on the skills and processes involved in the perception and expression of language. This article first describes levels of language representation, for example, semantics and grammar. It then delves into various language competencies, such as reading and speech that comprise language acquisition and production. Applications of psycholinguistics are also reviewed in the current article along with topics of interest in the field of psycholinguistics such as bilingualism.

Keywords Discourse; Grammar; Language Acquisition; Language Production; Language Skills; Morphology; Phonology; Psycholinguistics; Psychology; Semantics; Syntax

Overview

Psycholinguistics is more than just the psychology of language. More specifically, it has been defined as "the study of human language processing, involving a range of abilities, from cognition to sensorimotor activity, that are recruited to the service of a complex set of communicative functions" (Garman, 2000, p. 361). Psycholinguistics is concerned with how individuals communicate through symbols, or semiotics, via a number of language skills.

In detailing the components and processes involved in learning a language, Widdowson (2000) asserted that individuals must first gain an awareness of the various meanings within a language and then learn how to enact these meanings when using the language. Language can be spoken and written and involves production and reception. Therefore, language skills, or competencies, include speaking, writing, listening, and reading. Language ability entails how individuals put language skills to use.

Psycholinguistics deals with the reception, storage or representation, and production of words (Baker, Croot, McLeod, & Paul, 2001). How individuals receive, or perceive, words and then produce them is a type of language process. The perception of words is initiated when individuals encounter an input signal. The words produced are output signals. Psycholinguistics attends to the processes that take place in the period between input and output signals. Understanding psycholinguistics requires investigation of the multiple components and psychological aspects of the various language processes that comprise language development, including language reception, or acquisition, and language production.

Components of Language Development

In their work, Baker et. al (2001) discussed the important construct of underlying representations or how words exist, or are represented, in an individual's mind. Representations are stored in input and output lexicons. Gernsbacher and Kaschak (2003) detailed "sub-word-level processing, word processing, sentence-level processing, discourse processing, and issues of…neural architecture…" (p. 93) as processes and components related to language representations and skills.

Sub-word-level and word processing appear to be the building blocks of language and its development. Grammar is a pertinent construct in language development because it is through knowledge of grammar that individuals are able to construct and understand language through sentences. Clifton (2000) defined grammar as including syntax, morphology, and phonology. According to Clifton, syntax is the relationship between various components of a sentence; morphology refers to how words are composed and relate to other words and phrases; and phonology is the configuration of sounds that comprise a language. Phonemes are the most basic units of sound and can be combined to form phonetic units (Kuhl, 2004). Representation at the phonetic, phonemic, lexical-phonological, and semantic levels influences recognition and comprehension of words (Martin, 2003).

Semantics, or the meaning conveyed by language processes at the word (or lexical), sentence, and discourse levels (Sanford, 2000), is another integral construct in language development. Miller (1999) emphasized the import of knowing what a word means and the contexts in which the word will be used in his discussion of semantics. Aspects of semantics reviewed by Miller include logical, linguistic, sentential, and lexical semantics. Logical semantics refers to a theory on the arrangements of meanings found in a language. Linguistic semantics is the description of meanings for a language while sentential semantics focuses on what statements mean. Lexical semantics refers to the manner in which words that have individual meanings combine within a sentence to create another meaning. Finally, discourse, as defined by Singer (2000), is the logical arrangement of sentences in written or spoken format.

In regard to the neural architectural aspect of language development, Gernsbacher and Kaschak (2003) provided an overview of research on neuroimaging, including positron emissions tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and language processing. In these studies, individuals were monitored while completing tasks or responding to stimuli, such as semantic judgments and word generation, so that areas of the brain involved with the tasks and stimuli could be ascertained. Once words began to be processed, orthographic, or symbolic, representations of words were found to give way to phonological level processing. Pertinent results from Gernsbacher and Kaschak's review are included in the language acquisition and language production sections below.

Language Acquisition

Processing word representations in the input lexicon is part of language acquisition, or reception. With regard to lexicons, Miller (1999) asserted that closed-class and open-class words comprise the English lexicon. How the format and meaning of words interrelate create the framework for a lexicon. For closed-class words, such as pronouns and conjunctions, the functional role is in grammar. Open-class words are more numerous than closed-class words with meaning created by their relationships with other open-class words. Incorporated in language acquisition then are the language competencies of listening, or comprehension, and reading of words in a lexicon.

Bates, Devescovi, and Wulfeck (2001), review an investigation of language acquisition for children across multiple nations that addressed the genesis of word-level processing for language. Results indicated that children begin to understand words at between 8 to 10 months and start producing words between 11 to 13 months. By two years of age, children may be able to produce upwards of 500 words. The rate at which words are produced between initial word production and two years of age varies greatly across language. Grammar development also differs across languages and has been posited to be connected to vocabulary growth as well.

According to Ziegler and Goswami (2000), reading involves comprehension of written speech to ascertain meaning. Reading incorporates connecting visual symbols to sound. Phonological recoding takes words at the lexical level and maps them onto the sound levels. This process requires phonological awareness. Discrepancies in phonological awareness may lead to a language disorder such as dyslexia.

Brown (2005) investigated how children learn words and grammar. Of interest to Brown was children's engagement with the social environment as an influence of children's word and grammar learning. Dale (2004) explored the role of negative feedback children receive in regard to word learning and early grammar usage. Both word learning and early grammar usage relate to word-and sentence-level language processing. Dale stated that overextension occurs when children use one word for several others, such as apple for other fruit such as orange and pear. Social responses to overextension are a form of feedback that lends to the word learning process for youth with caregiver responses to children's language also shaping grammar development.

In a similar vein, Bates et al. (2001) investigated psycholinguistic concepts such as cue costs and cue validity from a cross-linguistic perspective. Cue costs are how much processing is required to use various formats of language while cue validity is the information garnered from different aspects of language. Cue costs and cue validity may differ in relevancy and reliability based on language. For example, in English cue validity is often ascertained by the context in which words are situated. As individuals use concepts such as cue costs and receive feedback from others to refine their language acquisition and comprehension, language competencies develop and are enacted through language production.

Language Production

Language production entails language competencies such as speech and writing. As Martin (2003) reviews, language production models usually begin at a nonlinguistic level of representation. Lexical-semantic levels of representation follow and involve words in relation to one another, an example being noun and verb association. Syntactic representation is the next level and entails how words relate to one another in order to convey various functions. Lexical-phonological representation leads to phonetic representation of words. Throughout the process individuals maintain words in their working memory.

One manifestation of language production is writing. Negro and Chanquoy (2005) define the process of writing as requiring the ability to plan, translate, and revise words across various levels of representation. Another aspect of language production is speech production. Speech production incorporates information at phonological, semantic, grammatical, orthographic (or spelling), and motoric levels (Baker et. al, 2001). Chang, Dell, and Bock (2006) explored the role of syntax in the process by which individuals acquire and produce speech. Syntax is composed of categories, functions and rules. For individuals to produce speech, Chang et al. suggest that they predict words based on what has been presented so far syntactically.

Diehl, Lotto, and Holt (2004) also address theories about speech perception. Speech perception research has addressed the relationship between acoustic signals and aspects of language processing. At its base level, speech perception is the way in which individuals interpret sounds as part of language. Speech perception emphasizes articulatory, along with acoustic or auditory, events. Articulatory events are gestures or vocal tract utterances that individuals perceive in the environment that provide information as to their surroundings.

Neural Architecture of Psycholinguistics

Neuroimaging studies provide insight about the relationship between brain functioning and language development. In terms of language acquisition, according to Gernsbacher and Kaschak's (2003) review, initiation of speech processing occurred in both left and right regions of the temporal lobe, specifically in the superior temporal gyrus. Additionally, word processing intersected at the auditory and visual level in many instances.

A central role of activity does exist in the frontal regions of the brain for several levels of representation in the language production process (Martin, 2003). Gernsbacher and Kaschak also note that the left frontal regions of the brain are related to phonological and semantic processing and likely the retrieval and production of word formation. Semantic processing also occurs in other areas of the frontal region of the brain (e.g., middle and anterior frontal regions) and temporal regions. Temporal regions of the brain are also involved in word retrieval and production and limited phonological processing. Sentence processing takes place in Wernicke's and Broca's areas and temporal and frontal regions of the brain. Discourse processing appears centered in the right hemisphere.

Applications

Psycholinguistics has been applied to areas as diverse as forensics and education. In regard to educational applications of psycholinguistics, Baker et. al (2001) stated that some strands of psycholinguistic research address "the way in which children process speech and language at a cognitive or psychological level and thus aim to formulate hypotheses about the psychological processes or components that may be impaired." (p. 686) For example, Mackie and Dockrell (2004) focused on students with and without a language learning disorder (LLD) in order to understand how writing competencies may vary in expression due to impairments in language skills. Students with an LLD in the oral language arena had difficulty in some aspects of written language expression.

Other educational applications of psycholinguistics include Hall's (1995) description of a game, a modification of "Hangman," that integrated components of psycholinguistics, such as semantic, syntactic, and graphophonic cues, in the development of reading skills and abilities. Additionally, Widdowson (2000) described task-based learning as a method of teaching language within a psycholinguistic framework so that individuals develop and refine language abilities and ultimately, communicate more effectively.

Issues

Language Disorders

Relevant contemporary issues of interest in psycholinguistics include language disorders and bilingualism. Language disorders can be conceptualized as developmental language disorders or acquired language disorders (Garman, 2000). Acquired language disorders often arise from brain injuries. Other language disorders can be attributed to learning disabilities or specific language impairments (SLIs). Tijms, Hoeks, Paulussen-Hoogeboom, and Smolenaars (2003) defined developmental dyslexia as a disorder involving phonological processing that impacts reading and spelling. Specifically, individuals with dyslexia find it difficult to represent words phonologically in their mental lexicon.

Conti-Ramsden, Botting, and Faragher (2001) delineated the relationship between shortcomings with verbal memory, language processing, and specific language impairments (SLIs). Nonword repetition and sentence recall were psycholinguistic markers most accurate in identifying youth with SLIs. Martin (2003) detailed how damages to Broca's and Wernicke's areas of the brain impact language. In terms of damage to Broca's area, language production was impaired whereas the ability to understand language was affected by damage to Wernicke's area.

Bilingualism

Bilingualism refers to an individual's aptitude in use of at least two languages (Baker, 2000). Second-language acquisition (SLA) is a term that refers to an individual's progression towards becoming bilingual (Hakuta, 2000). SLA may occur during childhood or adulthood. Regardless of the timing of its occurrence, SLA, or becoming bilingual, involves the use of similar language processes as those that occur during first, or native, language learning. Research has indicated that individuals may have disparate level of skill across the various competencies that comprise language acquisition and production in their first- (L1) and second-languages (L2) (Sandoval & Durán, 1998). Another phenomenon of interest in regard to bilingual individuals is code-switching. In code-switching, a bilingual person improvises with language skills and competencies in their L1 and L2 languages by using both languages while communicating with others (Hakuta, 2000). Psycholinguistics is interested in the meaning code-switching has in the communication process for bilingual individuals.

Conclusions

Psycholinguistics is an area of study that aims to explicate the varied ways in which individuals comprehend and use language. Language acquisition and production occur across multiple levels of representation-from word-level to discourse processing. Neuroimaging provides insight into how regions of the brain relate to competencies used and expressed in language development. Psycholinguistics has been applied in educational arenas and in other areas such as forensics. Language disorders and bilingualism are issues of interest in psycholinguistics and illustrate how language competencies may be expressed and experienced based on language impairment or knowledge of more than one language. Psycholinguistics offers a viable and valuable perspective by which to understand human communication and development through language.

Terms & Concepts

Discourse: Discourse is the spoken or written combination of sentences such that there is a logical representation of meaning.

Grammar: Grammar includes syntax, morphology, and phonology and is the mechanism by which sentences are constructed.

Language Acquisition: Language acquisition is the process by which individuals perceive and receive language. Language skills comprising language acquisition are listening and reading.

Language Production: Language production is the process by which individuals put language into use. Language skills comprising language production are speech and writing.

Language Skills: Language skills are competencies that reflect various language processes. Language skills are used in the acquisition and production of language and can be written or spoken. Language skills include reading, writing, listening, and speech.

Morphology: Morphology is the nature of the composition of words and their relationship to other words in a sentence.

Phonology: Phonology is the nature of the sound of words; it includes phonemes, the smallest units of sounds, and larger phonetic units.

Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language processes and skills used by individuals to produce and acquire language.

Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning conveyed at the word, sentence, or discourse level of language processing.

Syntax: Syntax is the aspect of grammar that refers to the characteristics, functions, and relationships of words within a sentence.

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Suggested Reading

Lorch, M. (2000). Disorders of language. In M. Byram (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching & Learning (pp. 182-183). London: Routledge. Retrieved November 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17365658&site=ehost-live

McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R. (1998). Memory-based language processing: Psycholinguistic research in the 1990s. Annual Review of Psychology, 49 , 25-42. Retrieved November 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=321345&site=ehost-live

Pennebaker, J., Mehl, M., & Niederhoffer, K. (2003). Psychological aspects of natural language use: Our words, our selves. Annual Review of Psychology, 54 , 547-577. Retrieved November 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9688611&site=ehost-live