Surname

In sociology, a surname is a person's last name that is passed down through generations. It is often referred to as a family name and appears at the end of an individual's full name.

In English-speaking countries, a person is identified by two names: a first name, or given name, which is received upon birth, and a surname, which follows the first name. In other cultures, including China, Japan, and India, the surname comes before the first name.

A surname is usually inherited from the father, but in modern times can be passed down from the mother. The practice of using surnames flourished during medieval times.

The origin of surnames can be traced back to four types: local or place names, relationship names, occupational names, and nicknames. Li, Smith, and Jones are among the most common surnames in the world.

Background

A surname is part of an individual's personal name, which is made up of a first name and a last name. The use of the two names together is called the binomial system of naming. This is the primary means that individuals are identified throughout the world.

The oldest surnames originated in Asia. Many Chinese surnames are three thousand years old, with some believed to be even older. Korean surnames date back to the first century BCE. Japanese surnames originated in the fifth century CE.

In Europe, most people did not have surnames before the eleventh century. The exception is in Ireland, where clan names eventually became family names. After the Norman Conquest in 1066, many people shared the same first name, so a secondary name was devised to differentiate them. This was called a byname, a descriptive name that referred to a person's residence, location, father, occupation, or another characteristic. An individual could hold multiple bynames or just one. They were usually not passed down to children.

The surname developed from the byname. The practice of using surnames gained stability with the creation of the feudal system. Barons and other land-owning magnates sought to pass down their titles and estates to their children. As property was inherited, so were their surnames.

During the early Middle Ages, surnames grew through the patronymic system. Through patronymics, a person had a given name plus a last name that referred to the individual's father. The surname did not identify the family's ancestry. The patronymic system gradually gave way to the binomial system, which allowed a single name referring to one ancestor to be inherited. By the fourteenth century, hereditary surnames were the norm throughout most of Europe.

In medieval times, the tradition was established that when a man and a woman married, the woman would adopt the man's family name as her own. The father's last name was also passed down to the couple's children. However, the practice changed significantly during the second half of the twentieth century. People may have children before or without getting married. In this case, the mother's last name may be passed down to the children.

In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, surnames may be chosen and not necessarily inherited. Married women may opt to retain their family names, or maiden names, for career reasons or to maintain their independence. In addition, some women choose to join their maiden names with their married names by hyphenating them. Couples then need to decide which surname is passed down to their children. There are also cases of men choosing to adopt their wives' surnames upon marriage.

Overview

Surnames originate from four main sources: local names, family relationships, occupations, and nicknames.

Most family names come from local names. Many surnames are based on toponymy, or place names. In the Middle Ages, people were identified by last names that referred to the estates they held, or the towns or villages where they resided. Several of these names were preceded by a preposition, such as of, or de in Latin, at, in, or by. The preposition was dropped by the later fourteenth century. The surnames spread as family members bearing the monikers moved from place to place. In England, major towns including York, Winchester, and Leicester are also surnames.

Local names are also derived from topography, the general features of the landscape where the individual lives. They can refer to natural features, such as hills or rivers, or man-made, including castles, churches, or city walls. Topographic surnames include Hill, Brook, Ash, Marsh, Green, or Wood.

Many surnames originated from family relationships. The majority of these names are derived from the patronymic system. Names ending in the suffixes -son or -s identified the individual in relation to the person's father. For example, the surname Johnson indicated the person as the "son of John," as does the surname Jones. Individuals were less often identified in relation to their mothers, or metronymics. This naming device was used when a woman significantly outlived her husband and became a key figure in the village or town.

Surnames also indicated occupation. A family's name could refer to the kind of work or trade that the bearer performed. Such surnames encompassed metalworking, agricultural, and kitchen-oriented jobs. Occupational surnames include Smith (as in blacksmith or silversmith), Miller, Shepherd, Cook, and Baker. The category also includes surnames that indicated a person's status, or social rank. These family names include Freeman, Knight, and Lord.

Many surnames trace their roots to nicknames. Nicknames referred to an individual's physical characteristics or personality traits. They described a person's stature, hair color, or demeanor. Surnames in this category include Brown, Short, Blunt (fair-haired), Sharp, or Wise.

Surnames continue to be passed down through generations across the world. The most common surname is Li, along with its variations Lee and Ly. More than one hundred million people in the world bear the last name. It is the most common surname in China, the world's most populous country.

In England, Ireland, and the United States, Smith is the most common surname. In England and Ireland, five hundred thousand people claimed the last name as of 2016, with Jones close behind. In the United States, more than two million people have the family name of Smith, according to the 2010 census. The country's second most common last name is Johnson, shared by more than one million people.

Individuals can research their surnames to find out more about their family history, or genealogy. The advent of the Internet in the late twentieth century has simplified researching one's lineage. Popular online resources include the free International Genealogical Index and the genealogy service Ancestry.com.

Bibliography

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