Afghan Heroin Trade

Summary: Afghanistan emerged as a leading global source of heroin in the 1990s. Cultivation of poppies, the raw material of opium and heroin, and manufacture of heroin both became major illicit industries in the country. A campaign by the Taliban launched in 2000 to reduce poppy production yielded some results, but ended with the US invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001. Poppy and heroin production subsequently continued to increase; the United States and its NATO allies in Afghanistan were at times reluctant to mingle the military campaign against the Taliban with what was viewed as a law enforcement operation in attacking elements of the drug trade, and efforts as part of the broader war on drugs proved unsuccessful. Allegations were also made—and denied—that senior officials in the US-backed Afghan government or close relatives were involved in the heroin trade. After regaining power in August 2021, the Taliban vowed to crack down on poppy cultivation and narcotics production once again and in April 2022 banned poppy cultivation throughout the country.

Heroin production in Afghanistan has several implications:

• It is a major source of funding and/or weapons for extremist groups, including al-Qaeda and even the Taliban despite its crackdowns. Heroin is often traded for armaments in open-air markets in Tajikistan, to the north. Traffickers have been able to earn substantial profits by selling heroin purchased in Afghanistan for a significant mark-up in Tajikistan, then using the proceeds to buy weapons at a discount and import them for sale to various militant groups operating in Afghanistan.
• Revenues from poppies and heroin have funded regional warlords, contributing to power struggles and destabilization.
• The influx of heroin and opium into several countries in the region, including Russia, Iran, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, has led to growing domestic problems related both to heroin addiction and to an increase in the incidence of HIV/AIDS (from contaminated needles).
• Heroin moves from Afghanistan to markets further north and then around the world.

History

Poppies were long grown in Afghanistan on a modest scale. Historically, they were used domestically for a variety of purposes ranging from pain killers to use in cooking oil and soap. By-products, such as poppy stalks, served as roofing and firewood.

In the early 1990s production of heroin took a sharp jump during a period of growing lawlessness following the withdrawal of Russian troops from Afghanistan in 1988. It was then that poppy cultivation and heroin production began to be carried out on an industrial scale, and to serve as an alternative to traditional cash crops. The first step was a rise in poppy production; this was followed in the late 1990s by the domestication of heroin production, effectively capturing more of the profits to be made from the opium trade, as well as saving on the cost and inconvenience of shipping bulky poppy plants.

In 1996 the Islamist fundamentalist group the Taliban took control over most of Afghanistan. It initially supported and taxed the poppy and opium industries, creating a major source of income as it continued to fight the group of opposition warlords known as the Northern Alliance and had little other economic activity. This contributed to further growth in the drug trade, making Afghanistan the world's biggest producer of opium poppies by the turn of the millennium. However, in 2000 the Taliban changed course and launched a campaign to stop the cultivation of poppies. In areas where the Taliban prevailed, this campaign was a qualified success (though some international observers suggested it was simply an effort to drive up prices). In areas ruled by the warlords who comprised the Northern Alliance, there was little or no dent in poppy production.

The Taliban's campaign to curb poppy and heroin production came to an end in October 2001 when the United States invaded Afghanistan in retaliation for the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks that were carried out by al-Qaeda operatives. Subsequently, Afghanistan's production of poppies, opium, and heroin grew exponentially. One effect of the US invasion was to shift production from Afghanistan's southeast to more peaceful, secluded areas in the north, which also had the effect of routing traffic through neighboring Tajikistan, and from there to other former Soviet republics.

Soon Afghanistan regained its place as the leading source of the raw material used to refine heroin. In January 2006, the Wall Street Journal described the growing Afghan heroin traffic as "a mighty flood that is reshaping the world drug market." In 2009, drug enforcement officials estimated that Afghanistan was responsible for about 90 percent of the world's heroin supply at that time, making the country by far the largest source of illicit opiates. Other estimates ranged from 70 percent upwards. In 2008, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that heroin accounted for just over half Afghanistan's gross national product—about $2.7 billion out of $5.2 billion.

Enforcement of bans on poppy cultivation proved difficult in the rugged territory of Afghanistan, and efforts to destroy crops by aerial spraying often alienated farmers from authorities and buttressed the influence of warlords or extremist groups. The most common approach—to pay farmers cash for not planting poppies—often had the unintended effect of encouraging more farmers to plant poppies in order to qualify for the cash stipend. At the same time, even though poppy farmers are thought to receive only about 1 percent of the eventual value of heroin, this is substantially more than can be earned from other cash crops and makes grants for non-cultivation extremely expensive. In some cases poppy farmers who accepted offers of money and equipment in exchange for not growing poppies complained that the US-backed Afghan government did not uphold its end of the bargain. Many of them went back to growing poppies.

Cash was not the only compensation for poppies. According to a report in the Independent in 2008, the years after the US invasion of Afghanistan saw an increasing trade in opium poppies or heroin for armaments in open air markets in Tajikistan. The report estimated that the Taliban, which remained an insurgent threat despite losing control of the country, received between 40 to 60 percent of its income (and weapons) from poppy production. According to this report, the arms were generally supplied by the "Russian mafia," which was active in marketing heroin in many countries.

With the value of poppy cultivation, allegations surfaced that senior members of the Afghan government (including the brother of President Hamid Karzai, Ahmed Wali Karzai, who in 2008 was chief of the Kandahar Provincial Council) were involved in the drug trade and acted to protect it. For example, in October 2008, the New York Times noted that officials in the US government believed that Ahmed Karzai was involved in drug trafficking, while also conceding they did not have sufficient evidence to make a court case. Both Karzai brothers denied the allegations and attributed them to political infighting. Whether or not they are based on facts, the allegations served to undercut the credibility of the president and his government seeking the fealty of the population, and fostered further corruption. At the same time, the international force led by the United States to combat the Taliban was generally not mandated to attack poppy production as a problem in itself unless direct links were made to the Taliban insurgency.

The inability of the United States and its allies, including the Afghan government, to suppress or even slow the growth of the Afghan drug trade generated widespread criticism. Studies showed that by 2017 the area of poppy cultivation in Afghanistan was significantly higher than it had been before the US invasion, leading many to declare the so-called war on drugs a failure. The Taliban also reasserted itself as an important player in the poppy and heroin industry, using the substantial profits—estimated to be in the tens or even hundreds of millions of dollars annually—to finance their ongoing insurgency. As the Taliban gradually regained territory, it taxed some poppy growers and drug traffickers while suppressing others, and gained support from those opposed to US and Afghan government suppression efforts. Other extremist groups, including al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (ISIS or IS) also reportedly had varying levels of involvement in the drug trade.

In 2020, the United States and the Taliban reached an agreement for the withdrawal of all US troops from the country, which also included a halt on any aerial bombing of opium or heroin production facilities. As the US withdrawal was completed in August 2021, the Taliban rapidly reasserted its control over Afghanistan and took full control of the country when the US-backed government collapsed. As they seized power, Taliban leaders indicated they would ban the cultivation of opium poppies once again, though few details of this policy were provided. Many international observers were skeptical that the Taliban would truly attempt to end a major source of national revenue, or that they would be able to do so effectively.

In 2021, Afghanistan's opiate production was valued at $1.8 to $2.7 billion, a figure equivalent to 14 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) and higher than the value of the country's legal exports. This also represented an increase in production compared to 2020. Meanwhile, the restored Taliban government continued to express its commitment to eradicating Afghanistan's heroin trade and, in April 2022, announced a new nationwide ban on poppy cultivation.

While this action may seem positive on the surface, it negatively impacted farmers and their employees throughout the country, particularly poor laborers and rural women. To frame the devastation, poppy cultivation in Helmand, Afghanistan, diminished from over 129,000 hectares (ha) in 2022 to 740 ha in 2023. Some experts suggested that foreign donors, who likely have express interest in the betterment of Afghanistan, harness the Taliban’s push for counter-narcotics and instead encourage licit farming, which would support positive economic growth. Other experts recommended intervention of Taliban officials and foreign powers in order to mitigate a humanitarian crisis.

Afghanistan's Role in World Heroin Traffic

A variety of statistics have been published estimating the market share of heroin production. However, there is widespread agreement that in the early twenty-first century Afghanistan greatly outstripped other traditional sources of opium, notably the Golden Triangle in Southeast Asia covering parts of Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand (and possibly parts of China). Afghan opium in particular flows into Europe, whereas the Golden Triangle has long been an important source of opium in Asia and North America.

The early twenty-first century surge in Afghan drug production has been connected to drug use patterns in many other countries. In Tajikistan, which suddenly became the first stop in the route of heroin from Afghanistan to Europe, the number of drug addicts increased sharply after 1999, according to authorities. An associated problem was an increase in AIDS cases caused by contaminated needles shared among addicts. In Europe, according to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime, increased heroin production in Afghanistan led to a sharp drop in the street price of heroin. Statistics in Western Europe show a direct correlation between Afghan heroin production and deaths blamed on drug addiction. The US also saw an epidemic of opioid abuse and addiction during the first decades of the twenty-first century, which began with abuse of prescription opioids such as OxyContin but later saw increasing rates of heroin abuse.

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