Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), also known as “forever chemicals,” are a group of thousands of different chemicals. They have been used in the manufacturing of items such as non-stick cookware since the 1940s but pose risks to the environment and human and animal health. These toxins, none of which are naturally occurring, can take decades to degrade. Some health risks of PFAS exposure include reproductive problems, developmental delays in children, increased risk of high blood pressure in pregnant women, and certain types of cancer.

PFAS chemicals are found nearly everywhere including in drinking water, in soil, on surfaces, in certain products and packaging, in dust, and even in rainwater. For this reason, experts have concluded that every American has been exposed to PFAS, but certain people have higher exposure due to where they live or their occupation. For example, those living near US Air Force Installations, such as Peterson Space Force Base in Colorado, suffer elevated exposure because of contaminated drinking water. For years, the base contaminated water for area residents because of the PFAS present in firefighting foam. The chemicals in this foam seep underground, eventually contaminating drinking water.

The United States government, as well as state and local governments and agencies, has taken steps to monitor and mitigate PFAS in communities. This has included increased research about PFAS, billions of dollars toward mitigation, and increased water testing. While scientific knowledge is limited on many PFAS, a 2022 study offered hope for the future, as it introduced a new technique to destroy PFAS. Using this technique, scientists reported that they had successfully broken down ten types of PFAS and had a strategy to break down others.

Background

PFAS is a term describing a group of thousands of chemicals that have been used in industrial and consumer products since the 1940s. Manufacturers developed these chemicals to use in products such as non-stick cookware, stain-resistant fabrics, and waterproof clothing. While the dangers of PFAS have been known for decades, the level of research conducted on individual PFAS varies. Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) are the most widely used and understood of the group and have been replaced by other chemicals in the United States. Many PFAS break down very slowly over time. Because of this, they can build up in people, animals, and the environment.

PFAS are found in many places including in drinking water, soil, and water at or near waste sites, fire extinguishing foam, food and food packaging, household products and dust, personal care products, and biosolids such as fertilizer from wastewater treatment plants. They can also be found at some manufacturing or chemical production facilities. Because these chemicals are so pervasive in products and environments, individuals can be exposed to them in a variety of ways such as working in occupations such as firefighting or chemicals manufacturing; drinking contaminated water, eating foods such as fish that may contain PFAS; swallowing contaminated soil or dust; breathing air containing PFAS; and using products made with PFAS or packaged in material containing PFAS.

Research suggests that exposure to high levels of certain PFAS chemicals can be harmful to human health. However, the level of exposure and type of PFAS determines the health outcomes. In general, though, peer-reviewed scientific studies have found that exposure to certain levels of PFAS can lead to the following adverse health impacts: reproductive issues such as decreased fertility and increased high blood pressure in pregnant women; developmental delays in children such as low birth weight, accelerated puberty, bone variations and changes in behavior; increased risk of prostate, kidney, and testicular cancers; reduced immune health resulting in a decreased ability to fight off infections and vaccine response; interference of the body’s natural hormones; increased cholesterol levels; and the risk of obesity.

Scientists continue to study other possible impacts of PFAS on human health, but research is difficult for a variety of reasons, including the existence of thousands of PFAS with varying effects and toxicity levels. However, most scientific studies focus on just a few well known PFAS. In addition, people can be exposed to PFAS in a variety of ways and at different stages of life, which affects the body’s reaction to PFAS. Lastly, the types and uses of PFAS change over time. This makes it challenging for scientists to determine how exposure to PFAS occurs and affects human health.

Certain people are at a greater risk of exposure to higher levels of PFAS because of their occupation or place of residence. Industrial workers who make or process PFAS or PFAS-containing materials and those who live or work near facilities that produce these compounds may have greater exposure. In addition, pregnant and lactating women may be at a greater risk of exposure because they tend to drink more water per pound of body weight than others, and PFAS may be in their drinking water.

Children are still developing, which can make them more sensitive to chemicals such as PFAS. They may also be exposed more than adults. This is because children tend to drink more water, eat more food, and breathe more air per pound of body weight compared to adults, which can all increase their exposure. In addition, young children often crawl on floors and put things in their mouth. This can lead to higher risk of exposure from carpets, household dust, toys, and cleaning products. Breast milk and even formula can also be a source of exposure for infants if their mother has PFAS in her blood, or the formula was prepared with water containing PFAS. In addition, developing fetuses can be exposed to PFAS during pregnancy through the mother’s drinking water.

The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends steps that people can take to limit their exposure to PFAS. First, they suggest researching whether PFAS is in the drinking water by reaching out to the local water utility and asking them to test the water if they have not already done so. Then, it is recommended that concerned people compare those results with state standards for safe levels of PFAS in drinking water. If people remain concerned about the amount of PFAS in their drinking water, the EPA suggests contacting the state environmental protection agency or health department. Individuals can also install an in-home water treatment solution such as a filter that is certified to lower PFAS levels in water. For those with wells, the EPA recommends conducting regular well testing. People can also avoid eating fish from PFAS-impacted waterways and discussing the issue with a doctor if breastfeeding.

PFAS Today and Impact

A 2020 study by the Environmental Working Group concluded that two hundred million Americans could have excess PFAS in their drinking water. The chemical compounds have also made it into the atmosphere, affecting rainwater. A 2022 study in Environmental Science and Technology concluded that PFAS was so pervasive in the atmosphere that rainwater everywhere contains these chemicals. Scientists have said that the levels of PFAS in rainwater worldwide make it unsafe for long-term human consumption.

An August 2022 report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) advised that PFAS testing be made available to many more people, especially those that likely have a history of elevated exposure. This includes millions of people living in areas with PFAS drinking water contamination, firefighters, and those living near commercial airports and military bases. The report also confirmed many of the concerns about PFAS exposure on health, including the risk of kidney cancer in adults, decreased immunity, decreased fetal growth, increased cholesterol, and increased risk of heart attack and stroke. The committee also found evidence that PFAS exposure can increase the risk of thyroid disease in adults, cause high blood pressure in pregnant women, increase the risk of breast and testicular cancer, and change liver enzymes in children.

Colorado’s El Paso County is one area heavily affected by contamination from PFAS. Routine testing identified PFAS in wells downstream from Peterson Space Force Base, which used the chemicals in firefighting foam for many years. Wells in the area were shut down in 2016, and residents were given free bottled water to drink for more than a year. The Air Force funded and installed a treatment system, and the water system later came back online. While the water met 2019 and 2020 EPA guidelines, a 2022 report from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) revealed elevated blood levels in those living in the area who may have ingested foul water. The report also found that adults who consumed locally grown fruits or vegetables had 52-percent higher levels of PFAS in their blood.

Some research at that time focused on how best to neutralize or even destroy PFAS chemicals. For example, in August 2022, chemists at Northwestern University announced a new method to destroy certain PFAS using low temperatures and inexpensive substances to break down two major classes of PFAS. Using their new method, the chemists reported they had successfully broken down ten types of PFAS and planned to begin breaking down others.

By the 2020s, researchers had noted disparities across racial lines in PFAS exposure in the US. For example, a study published in August 2023 in Environmental Science & Technology, a peer-reviewed journal, revealed that Asian Americans had a higher exposure rate to PFAS than other racial groups in the country. Researchers pointed to a number of possible explanations for this disparity, including higher fish consumption among Asian Americans compared to other groups in the US, and/or the possibility that some of these individuals had immigrated to the US from countries with more relaxed approaches toward PFAS regulation.

Government Action

In 2021, some federal agencies in the United States took steps to combat and remediate PFAS contamination. EPA Administrator Michael S. Regan announced a strategic roadmap to combat PFAS. It outlined the agency’s commitments to action from 2021–2024 to safeguard public health, protect the environment, and hold polluters accountable. The roadmap prioritized science-based decision-making by investing in research to fill in the gaps of knowledge about PFAS. This included additional research about which PFAS may pose risks to human health and the environment and at which exposure levels. It also included the development of methods to test, measure, remove and destroy PFAS. Lastly, the roadmap prioritized equitable access to solutions for disadvantage communities.

Also in 2021, the US Department of Defense (DOD) moved to address PFAS at their sites across the country. This included initiating PFAS cleanup assessments at nearly seven hundred of the department’s installations and National Guard locations. DOD manages the largest PFAS detection, treatment, and destruction program in the United States, and has invested millions of dollars into PFAS-free replacement firefighting foam. Other departments working on addressing PFAS contamination include the Federal Drug Administration (FDA), which tests PFAS in the food supply; The US Department of Agriculture (USDA), which supports research about PFAS in the food system and is taking action to prevent and address contamination; the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS), which investigates and remediates PFAS and protects emergency responders; and the Department of Health and Human Services, which reviews the evolving science on PFAS.

On June 15, 2022, the Biden administration announced it would continue to combat PFAS pollution to safeguard clean drinking water for all Americans. One billion dollars from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law was made available to help communities fight water contamination caused by PFAS. These funds could be used for technical assistance, water quality testing, contractor training, and the installation of centralized treatment technologies and systems. The administration also announced additional tools for state and local governments to help them address PFAS pollution and protect drinking water. These included launching a new nationwide PFAS monitoring system that could detect more types of contaminants at lower levels; developing a new national drinking water standard for certain PFAS; and publishing the results of water quality tests in non-DOD drinking water systems that are near or downstream from military installations.

By 2022, states such as Washington, California, Colorado, Maine, Maryland, New York, and Vermont all proposed or adopted consumer products laws or regulations banning or requiring reporting on certain products that contain PFAS and other chemicals. For example, Washington’s 2019 Safer Products Rule banned the use of PFAS in consumer products. Elsewhere in the world, other legal developments increased the likelihood of stricter PFAS regulation in the future; for example, in February 2023, the European Union (EU) proposed a ban on roughly 10,000 different PFAS.

In December 2023, the government of the city of Tampa, Florida, announced that it would implement a suspended ion exchange (SIX) technology for its public water infrastructure. This SIX system, which was imported from the Netherlands, would filter decaying organic matter from the city's water supply and thereby, officials hoped, prevent some dangerous PFAS from reaching the public. This made Tampa the first city in the US to adopt such a system, and one of the first cities in the world to do so. By that point, the EPA had gotten closer to announcing a ban on certain PFAS chemicals and manufacturers of some of these chemicals, such as DuPont, had faced lawsuits in US courts.

In April 2024, the EPA released their finalized National Primary Drinking Water Regulation, which established legally enforceable levels for six PFAS in public water systems. The EPA decision gave public water systems until 2027 to complete initial monitoring and until 2029 to implement solutions to reduce PFAS.

Bibliography

“FACT SHEET: Biden-Harris Administration Combatting PFAS Pollution to Safeguard Clean Drinking Water for All Americans.” The White House, 15 June 2022, www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/06/15/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-combatting-pfas-pollution-to-safeguard-clean-drinking-water-for-all-americans/. Accessed 21 Aug. 2022.

“FACT SHEET: Biden-Harris Administration Launches Plan to Combat PFAS Pollution.” The White House, 18 Oct. 2021, www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/10/18/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-launches-plan-to-combat-pfas-pollution/. Accessed 21 Aug. 2022.

Ferreira, Becky. “Rainwater Everywhere Now Considered Too Toxic for Safe Consumption, Study Finds.” VICE, 10 Aug. 2022, www.vice.com/en/article/m7gban/rainwater-everywhere-now-considered-too-toxic-for-safe-consumption-study-finds. Accessed 21 Aug. 2022.

Kelley, Debbie. “PFAS Water Contamination Ubiquitous, but Colorado Springs-area Treatment Plants Gaining Ground.” The Gazette, 15 Aug. 2022, gazette.com/premium/pfas-water-contamination-ubiquitous-but-colorado-springs-area-treatment-plants-gaining-ground/article‗f63cc2a8-1995-11ed-8c34-fb15b7d50412.html. Accessed 21 Aug. 2022.

“Meaningful and Achievable Steps You Can Take to Reduce Your Risk.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, 18 Aug. 2022, www.epa.gov/pfas/meaningful-and-achievable-steps-you-can-take-reduce-your-risk. Accessed 21 Aug. 2022.

Meszaros, Jessica. "Tampa's New Water Filtration system is Expected to Help Remove Forever Chemicals." NPR, 2 Jan. 2024, www.npr.org/2024/01/02/1222434176/tampas-new-water-filtration-system-is-expected-to-help-remove-forever-chemicals. Accessed 21 Mar. 2024.

“Our Current Understanding of the Human Health and Environmental Risks of PFAS.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16 Mar. 2022, www.epa.gov/pfas/our-current-understanding-human-health-and-environmental-risks-pfas. Accessed 21 Aug. 2022.

"Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Final PFAS National Primary Drinking Water Regulation." US Environmental Protection Agency, 22 May 2024, www.epa.gov/sdwa/and-polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas. Accessed 30 May 2024.

“PFAS Strategic Roadmap: EPA’s Commitments to Action 2021–2024.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, 29 June 2022, www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-strategic-roadmap-epas-commitments-action-2021-2024. Accessed 21 Aug. 2022.

Yam, Kimmy. "Asians in U.S. Have Highest Exposure to Cancer-Linked 'Forever Chemicals' among All Races." NBC News, 28 Aug. 2023, www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/asians-forever-chemicals-rcna102150. Accessed 21 Mar. 2024.